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••••• * •••---

MAN

A MONTHLY RECORD OF ANTHROPOLOGICAL SCIENCE.

PUBLISHED UNDER THE DIRECTION OP THE

ANTHROPOLOGICAL INSTITUTE

GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND

IV.

1904.

Nos. 1—126 ; 201—208.
-WITH PLATES A-M.

PUBLISHED BY

THE ANTHROPOLOGICAL INSTITUTE,

3, HANOVER SQUARE, L.ONDQN, W,

» • I • •• •

• • „*• • •••

• • • •

• • •••• • • <

i:\.i-y(v\

CONTENTS.

ORIGINAL ARTICLES.

x«.

Africa. Songs of the Baluba of Lake Moero. (Illustrated.) Emile Torday 80

Africa, South. Beads from Buluwayo. Prof. W. M. Flinders Petrie, D.C.L., F.U.S. ... 70
Africa, South: Animal Superstitions. Animal Superstitions among the Zulus, llasutos.

Griquas, and Maltese, and the Kafirs of Natil. D. Blackburn and X. W. Thomas, M.A. 115

Africa, West. Notes on the Form of the Bini Government 38

Africa. See also Egypt ; Nigeria.

America, South. Portrait of a Guayaqui Indian. (With Plate L.) Prof. K. H. Giulioli 104

America. See also Chile ; Peru ; Totemism.

Anthropology. See Physical anthropology.

Archaeology. See Africa, South; Easter Island; Egypt ; England; France:

Greece ; Pahang ; Peru ; Siberia.
Asia. See China; India; Malay; Pahang ; Siam ; Siberia.

Australia. New South Wales Stone Chnringa. Andrew Lang 55

Australia. See aho Marriage Prohibitions ; Totemism.

Biography. See Obituary.

Chile: Physical Anthropology. Notes on an Ancient Skull from the Chilian Andes.

(Illustrated.) B. E. Latcham 54

China. Tien-tain Mud Figure?. (Illustrated.} J. Edgk-Partington 47

Craniology. See Chile.

Easter Island. A "Domestic Idol "from Easter Island. (Illustrated.) J. Edge-Partington 46

Easter Island. Another type of 4 - Domestic Idol "from Easter Island. (Illustrated) H.

St. George Gray 96

Easter Island. Easter Island : Script. 0. M. Dalton, M.A., F.S.A. ... 78

Easter Island. On an inscribed Wooden Tablet from Easter Island (Rapa Nui) in the British

Museum. (With Plate A.) O. M. Dalton, M.A., F.S.A 1

Egypt. Discovery of an XI th dynasty Terajle at Deir el-Bahari. (With Plate /,') H. K.

Hall, M.A 43

Egypt : Beni-Hasan. Excavations at Ben i- Hasan in Upper Egypt. (Second Seas >n )

(With Plate G.) John Garstang, B.A., B.Litt., F.S.A 67

Egypt: Excavations. Excavations at Ehnasya. (With Plate II.) Prof. W. M Flindkks

Pbtuie, DC.L., F.R.S 77

England: ArchSBOlOgy. Coldrum, Kent, and its lelation to Stonehcnge. (Illustrated.)

Georgr Clinch, F.G.S 12

England : Archaeology. The Coldrum Monument. A. L. Lewis, F.CA 23

England: Archaeology. A Copper Celt from Staple Fitzpaiue, Somerset. (Illustrated.)

H. St. George Gray 5

England : ArchSBOlOgy. Excavations at Caerwent in Monmouthshire. (Illustrated )

Thomas Ashby, Juur., M.A., F.S.A. 69

England: APChaBOlOgy. On the occurrence of Stone Inip'ements in the Thames Valley.

(With Plate B.) LLEWELLYN TREACHER, F.G.S 10

England: ArchaBOlOgy. A remarkably thin Flint Arrowhead from Maiden Castlo. Dor-
chester. (Illustrated.) H. St. GEORGE GRAY 105

Europe. See England; France; Greece; Herzegovina; Scotland.

Fiji. The Fijians in Peace and War. (Illustrated.) W. L. Allardyck, C M.(i 45

France: Painted Pebbles. The Problem of the Painted Pebbles of Ma« d'Azil Andrew

Lang 22

Folklore. See Africa, South; Greece; Herzegovina; Malay; Siam.

Greece: Animal Folklore. Animal Folklore from Greece. N. W. Thomas M.A 81

Greece: ArchSBOlOgy. Prehistoric Archa-clogy in Greece. Prof. P. Kabbadiah \\2

Herzegovina: Animal Folklore. Animal Folklore from the Herzegovina. L. G. B.JKLs-

kositche and N. W. Thomas, M.A 88

India. A Method of inducing Artificial Sleep in Children in India. (Illustrated.) Captain

J. H. Anderson ... 87

Magic. See Terminology.

No.
Malay : Folklore. The Legends of Bakit D»to' B&ta GSdong and of Tan jung Tnan (Cape

Rachado) in Malacca. D. Hebvey, C.M.G 14

Marriage Prohibitions. The Origin of Marriage Prohibitions. N. W. Thomas, M.A. ... 2
New Guinea. Drawings by Natives of British New Guinea. (With Plate C.) A. C.

Haddon, 8c.D., F.R.S 21

New Guinea. Note concerning the Progress of the Cook-Daniels Expedition to New Guinea

and the Solomon Islands. C. G. Seligmann, M.D 114

New Zealand. A Maori Feather Box. Babon A. von HCoel. (With Plate M.) Ill

New Zealand. A Maori Flageolet. (Illustrated.) H. St. George Gray 4

Nigeria. Notes on the "Mbari" Festival of the Natives of the Ibo Country, S. Nigeria.

(Illustrated.) A. A. Whitehotjbe 106

Nigeria. Notes on some Native Objects from Northern Nigeria. (Illustrated.) E. F. Martin 11

Obituary. Alexander Stuart Murray, LL.D., F.S.A. (Illustrated.) 86

Obituary. Herbert Spencer. E. W. Brabbook, C.B., F.S.A 8

Pacific. See Easter Island ; Fiji ; New Guinea ; New Zealand ; Polynesia ;

Solomon Islands.

«Pahang: Stone Implements. Note on Stone Implements from Pahang. (Illustrated.)

R. M. W. Swan 84

Peru. On Two Pottery Vases from the Upper Amazon, Peru. ( With Plate D.) C. H. Bead,

F.S.A 82

Peru: Copper Implements. Hafted Copper Implements from Peru. (With Plate F.)

Prof. E. H. Giglioli ... 52

Polynesia. A Stone Rice-sheller from Nusa. (Illustrated.) R. Parkinson 78

Physical Anthropology. A Skull Stand for photographic purposes. W. Wright, M.B.,

I) Sc., F.R.C.S 118

Physical Anthropology. See also Chile.

Siam : Folklore. The Dynastic Genius of Siam. Nelson Annandale, B.A 13

Siberia. Stone Implements from the Frozen Gravel of the Yenisei. (With Plate X.)

W. J. Lewis Abbott, F.G.S 95

Scotland. A Modern Instance of Trial by Ordeal in Scotland. Nelson Annandale, B.A. ... 97
Solomon Islands. Note on Funerary Ornaments from Rubiana. and a Coffin from Sta. Anna,

Solomon Islands. (With Plate I- J.) J. Edge-Pabtington and T. A. Joyce, M.A. ... 86

Terminology. Studies in Terminology. I. Magic. N. W. Thomas, M.A 107

Totemism. A Theory of Arunta Totemiam. Andrew Lang 44

Totemlsm. Arunta Totemism : A Note on Mr. Lang's Theory. N. W. Thomas, M.A." 68

Totemism. Further Remarks on Mr. Hill-Tout's Views on Totemism. N. W. Thomas, M.A.... 58
Totemism. See also Marriage Prohibitions.

REVIEWS.

Africa. Johnston. The Nile Quest. A Record of the Exploration oftlie Kile and its Basin.

R. W. Felkin, M.D. 50

Africa, Central. Duff. Nyassaland under the Foreign Office. R. W. Felkin, M.D. ... 57

Africa, East. Van der Burght. Dictionnaire Francais-Kirundi. Ml88 A. Wekneb ... 84
Africa, East. Hinde. Vocabularies of the Kamba and Kikuya Languages of East Africa,

R. W. F 120

Africa : Institutions. Hayfird. Gold Coast Native Institutions. E. S. H 206

Africa, SOUth. Kidd. Tlie Essential Kafir. N. W. T 58

Africa, West. "Actinus." Camera Pictures of the Gold Coast. E. F. M 121

Africa. See also Algebia ; Egypt; Hausa.

Algeria. Tripp. Beautiful Biskra, "The Queen of the Desert: 1 H. S. K 85

America : Archaeology. Quiroga. La Cruz in America. J. L. M 108

America : Basketry. Mason. Aboriginal American Basketry. Miss A. HlNGSTON ... 71

America. See also Abgentina ; Pebu ; Totemism.

Anthropology. Tylor. Primitive Culture; Researches into the Development of Mythology,

Philosophy, Religion, Language, Art, and Custom. E. N. F 8

Anthropology. Cels. Science de V Homme ei l Me'thvde a nthropologique. J. G. 117

Anthropology. See also Physical anthbopology.

Anthropometry. Boas. Statistical Study of Anthropometry. D. RAND ALL-MAClVEB, M.A. 62

Arabia. Hogarth. The Penetration of Arabia. A. H. Kkane, LL.D 56

ArchSBOlOgy. Hoernes. Der Diluviale Mensch in Europa. J. E. 202

No.
APChfiBOlOgy. Thieullen. SociStS £ Emulation & Abbeville : Hommage h Boucher de Perth**.

A. L. L 102

ArchSBOlogy. See aim Amebica ; Argentina ; Early Britain ; Egypt ; England ;

Germany; Ireland; Moravia; Portugal; Prehistoric Swords; Rome; Stone

age.

Argentina. Ambrosetti. Los pucos pintados de rojo *obre bianco del valle de Yocaril. Cuatro

pi ctog rafids de la region Cal/taqui. D. Randall-MacIver, M.A 51

Asia. See Arabia ; Babylonia ; Buloch Race ; India ; Japan ; Malay ; Tibet.

Australia, Central. 8pencer : Gillen. The Northern Tribes of Central Australia. C. H. R. 93

Australia, S0Uth-East. Howitt The Native Tribes of South-East Australia. A Lang ... 116

Babylonia. See Magic.

BalOCh Race. Dames. Ihe Baloch Race : A Historical and Ethnological Sketch. W. Crook E 75

Bibliography. The International Catalogue of Scientific Literature. P. H. S. K 9

Bibliography. Tlie International Catalogue of Scientific Literature. P. (2nd Yearly Issue.)

N. W. Thomas, M.A 82

Britain. Conybeare. Roman Britain. H. S. K 208

Britain. See also Early Britain ; England.

British GeniUS. Ellis. A Study of British Genius. J. GRAY 39

Buddhism. Buddhism : An Illustrated Quarterly Renew. M. LONGWORTH Dames ... 40

Celtic Literature. MacLean. Tlie Literature of the Celts. E. C. Q 207

CraniolOgy. Boas. Heredity in Head Form. D. RANDALL-MACIVER, M.A 62

Early Britain.* Codrington. Roman Roads in Britain. C. H. B LA K 1ST ON, B.A 15

Egypt. Garstang. Tombs of the Third Egyptian Dynasty. D. RANDALL- Mac I VER, M.A. ... 87

England: Archaeology. W indie. Remains of the Prehistoric Age in England. E. N. F.... 64
England : Neolithic. Johnson : Wright. Neolithic Man in Nortk-East Surrey. George

Clinch, F.G.S. 64

Ethnography. Keller. Queries in Ethnography. C. H. Read, F.S.A. 38

Ethnology. See Japan.

Evolution. u Semi- Darwinian." Doubts about Darwinism. E. B. P 61

Folklore. Kauffoiann : Smith. Northern Mythology. E. N. F. 20

Germany : ArchSBOlogy. SchlTz. Frdnkische und alamannisclte Kunsttdtigheit im friihen

Mitlelalter. R. A. S ... 91

German Race. Wiher. Die Germanen. A. H. Keane, LL.D. 90

German Race. Driesmans. Die Kulturgeschichte der Rassen-instinkten. J. L. M 118

Hausa. Brooks: Nott. Bdtu na Abubuan Hausa. E.F.Martin 74

India. Risley : Gait. Tlie Census of India, 1901. M. LONGWORTH Dames 83

Ireland: Archaeology. Joyce. A Social History of Ancient Ireland. E. N. F 6

Italy. Pigorini. Le piu anticlie civilta delV Italia. D. RANDALL-MAClVER, M.A 27

Japan : Ethnology. Koganei. Ueber die Urbewohner ron Japan. W. L. H. Duckworth,

M.A. 201

MagiC Thompson. The Derils and Evil Spirits of Babylonia. N. W. T 19

Malay. Annandale : Robinson. Fasciculi Mala ye uses. T. A. J. 89

Man: Prehistoric. Zaborowski. V Homme pre historique. E. N. F 65

Melanesia. Audrey. In the Isles of the Sea. E. F. 29

MelOS. Atkinson: Bosanquet. Excavations at Phylakopi in Melos. F. H. M. 59

Method. Bury. An Inaugural Lecture delivered in the Divinity Scliool, Cambridge, Janu-
ary 26,1903. O. M. D 28

Moravia : Archaeology. KrTz. Beit rage zur Kenntnis der Quart drzeit in Mdhren. A. M.

Bell 25

Norse Mythology. Kermode. Traces oftlie Norse Mythology in tlie Isle of Man. N. W. T. U9

Pacific. Guppy. Observations of a Naturalist in the Pacific. F. W. R 205

Pacific. Smith. Niue-fekai (or Savage) Island and its People. J. Edge-Partington ... 7

Pacific. See also Melanesia; Solomon Islands; Torres Straits.

Paraguay. Grubbe. Among the Indians of the Paraguayan Chaco : A Story of Missionary

Work in Situth America. N. VV. T 49

Peru. Baessler : Keane. Ancient Peruvian Art. T.A.J 204

Philippine Islands. Landor. The Gems of the East : Sixteen Thousand Miles of Research

Travel among Wild and Tame Tribes of Enchanting Ixlands. S. H. RAY 99

Physical Anthropology. Daffner. Das Wavhstum des Menschen: Anthropologische Studien.

Havelock Ellis 208

Physical Anthropology. Schwalbe. Die Vorgeschichte des Menschen. J. GRAY 17

Physical Deterioration. Watt-Smyth. Physical Deterioration : Its Causes and the Cure.

F. S 109

Portugal. Portugalia : Muteriaex para o estudo do povo portuguez. A. L. L. 16

No.
Prehistoric SwOPdS. Naue. Die VorrtimUchen Schwerter aus Kupfer y Bronze vnd Eisen.

Akthur J. Evans, Litt.D., F.R.S 24

Psychology. StolL Suggestion vnd Hypnotismus in der Vblkerpsychologie. N. W. T. ... 36

Psychology. Ward: Rivers. Tlie Brit ixh Journal of Psyclwlogy. N. W. T 78

Religion. See Buddhism.

Rome : ArchSBOlOgy. Burton-Brown. Recent Excavation* in tlve Roman Forum. C. H.

Blakiston, B.A 41

Scotland : Place-Names. Johnston. Place- Xames of Scotland. J. A. 26

Solomon Islands. Ribbe. Xwei Jahre unter den Kannibalen der Salomo-In*eln. BASIL

Thomson 92

Stone Age. Giglioli. Mater iali per lo Studio delta " Eta della Pietra." J. L. M 101

Stone Age. Butot. Coup tTaril svr Tetat des Connaissance* relative* aujr Industrie* de la

pierre. R. A. S 72

Switzerland. Heierli. Urge*chichte der Schweiz. J. L. M 128

Technology. Bourdeau. I[i*toired*THabillement et d* la Parure. A. C. H 60

Tibet. Bishop. Among the Tibetan*. H. S. K 42

Tibet. Sarat Chandra Das. -4 Tibetan- Engli*h Dictionary with Sanskrit Synonym*. E. J. R. 100
Torres Straits. Haddon : Rivers. Report* of t/ie Cambridge Anthropological Expedition to

Torres Strait*. Vol. V. E. 8. H 98

Totemism. Hill-Tout. Totem ism : A Consideration of its Origin and Import. N. W.

Thomas, M.A. 48

Totemism. Robertson-Smith. Kinship and Marriage in Early Arabia. N. W. T 18

PROCEEDINGS OF SOCIETIES.

Americanists. Fourteenth International Congress of 124

British Association for the Advancement of Science 108, 110

London. Anthropological Institute of Great Britain and Ireland 30, 66, 76, 125, 126

London. Sociological Society 81

ERRATA.

No. 42, page 64, line 4, for Imbra read Aubra.
No. 48, page 76, tine 42, for totemism* read totemism.
No. 48, page 77, line 9, for Belgando read Belyando.
No. 48, page 78, line 2, for or read on.
No. 107, page 166, line 36, for spells read lots.
No. 107, page 167, line 37, for casual read causal.

DESCRIPTION OF THE PLATES.

A. Inscribed Tablet and Gorget from Easter Island

B. Stone Implements from the Thames Valley

C. Drawings by Natives of British New Guinea

D. Pottery Vase from the Upper Amazon

E. An Eleventh Dynasty Temple at Deir eJ-Bahari

P. Hafted Copper Implements from Peru

o. Excavations at Beni- Hasan

H. Gold Statuette of the God Hershefi

I-J. Funerary Ornaments from Kubiana

K Stone Implements from the Yenisei

L. Portrait of a Guayaqui Indian

M. Maori Feather Box

ith

No. 1

!•

»l

>»

»»

104

»»

111

ILLUSTRATIONS IN THE TEXT.

N.B. — All are Photographs, except where otherwise stated.

A Maori Flageolet

A Copper Celt from Staple Fitzpaine, Somerset. (Drawing.)

Map of part of the Thames Valley. (Drawing.)

Section across Thames Valley between Reading and Caversham. (Drawing.)

Section across Thames Valley between Ruscombe and Shiplake. (Drawing.)

Native Objects from Northern Nigeria. (Drawing.)

Cold rum, Kent : Ground Plan of the Cromlech. (Drawing.)

Sievern, Hanover : Ground Plan of the Cromlech. (Drawing.)

Coldium, Kent : View of the Cromlech from the East

Drawings by Natives of British New Guinea. (Drawing*.) (Figs. 1-24.)

Pottery Vase from the Upper Amazon. (Figs. 1 and 2.)

Section through the Tui Valley. (Drawing.)

Stone Implements from Pahang. (Drawing.)

Alexander Stuart Murray

Exterior of Chiefs House, Fiji

Interior of Chiefs House, Fiji

Sea-going Canoe, Fiji

A Domestic Idol from Easter Island. (Drawing.)

Tien-tain Mud Figure

Ancient Skull from the Chilian Andes. (Fig. 1 : Norma Vertical is. Fig. 2 : Norma

Lateralis. Fig. 3 : Norma Facialis.) (Drawings.)

Metal Bowl of VI. Dynasty

Caerwent. House No. 2. Channelled Hypocaust M 69

Caerwent. Peristyle of House No. 3 ... ,, 69

Caerwent. House No. 7 : Rooms 6 and 7 „ 69

Caerwent. Head of a Stone Figure „ 69

Plan of Caerwent „ 69

Stone Rice-Sheller from Nusa. (Figs. 1 and 2.) (Drawings.) ,. 79

Songs of the Baluba of Lake Moero. Four Songs. (Drawings.) „ 80

Mortuary Hut containing the Skull of a Chief of Rubiana, Solomon Islands.

(Drawing.) „ 86

Details of Patterns on Funerary Ornaments. (Drawing.) „ 86

Model of a Fish enclosing Skull of a Chief, Sta. Anna, Solomon Islands „ 86

Method of Inducing Artificial Sleep in Children in India „ 87

Another Type of *• Domestic Idol " from Easter Island „ 96

Thin Flint Arrow-head from Maiden Castle, Dorchester. (Drawing.) ,. 105

The u Mbari " Festival of the Natives of the Ibo Country, S. Nigeria. (Figs. 1-3.) ... „ 106

A Skull Stand for photographic purposes „ 118

With

No. 4

t»

•»

t»

»»

»•

»»

»>

»t

, f

»1

?»

Vlll

LIST OF AUTHORS.

N.B. — The Number* to which an asterisk is added are those of Reviews of Books.

A., J., 26*.
Abbott, W. J. L., 95.
Allardyce, W. L., 45.
Anderson, J. H., 87.
Annandale, N., 13, 97.
Ashby, T. V., 69.

Balfour, H., 31.
Bell, A. M., 25*.
Bjelskositche, L. G., 88.
Blackburn, D., 115.
Blakiston, C. H., 15*, 41*.
Brabrook, E. W., 3.

Clinch, G., 12, 64*.
Crooks, W., 75*.

Dalton, O. M., 1, 28*, 78.
Dames, M. L., 40*, 83*.
Duckworth, W. L. H., 201*.

E., J., 202*.

Edge-Partington, J., 7*, 46, 47, 86.

Ellis, H., 203*.

Evans, A. J., 24*.

F., E. N., 6*, 8*, 20*, 29*, 65*, 94*.
Felkin, R. W., 50*, 57*, 120*.

Garstang, J., 67.
Giglioli, E. H., 52, 104.
Gray, H. St. G., 4, 5, 96, 105.
Gray, J., 17*, 39*, 117*.

H., E. S., 98*, 206*.
Haddon, A. C, 21,60*.
Hervey, D., 14.
Hingston, Miss A., 71*.
HttoEL, A. von, 111.

Joyce, T. A., 86, 89*, 204*.

K., H. S., 9*, 42*, 85*, 122*, 208*.
Kabbadias, P., 112.
Keane, A. H., 56*, 90*.

Lang, A., 22, 44, 55, 116*.
Latcham, R. E., 54.
Lewis, A. L., 16*, 23, 102*.

M., F. H., 59*.

M., J. L., 101*, 108*, 118*, 123°.

Martin, E. F., 11,74*, 121*.

P., E. B., 61*.
Parkinson, R., 79.
Petrie, W. M. F., 70, 77.

Q., E. C, 207*.

R., E. J., 100*.

R , F. W., 205*.

RandallMacIver, D., 27*, 37* 51*,

62*, 63*, 124.
Ray, S. H., 99*.
Read, C. H., 32, 38*, 93*.

S., F., 109*.
S., R. A., 72*, 91*.
Seligmann, C. G., 114.
Swan, R. M. W., 34.

Thomas, N. W., 2, 18*, 19*, 36*, 48*,
49*, 53, 58*, 68, 73*, 81, 82*, 88, 107,
115, 119*.

Thomson, B., 92*.

Torday, E., SO. >

Treacher, LI., 10.

Werner, Miss A., 84*.
Whitehouse, A. A., 106.
Wright, W., li3.

Pl.ATR A.

Man, 1904.

0— 1 f i-

INSCRIBED TABLET AND QORQET FROM EASTER ISLAND.

MAN

A MONTHLY RECORD OF ANTHROPOLOGICAL SCIENCE.

PUBLISHED UNDER THE DIRECTION OF
THE ANTHROPOLOGICAL INSTITUTE OF GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND.

y.B. — All communications printed in Man are signed or initialled by their
authors, and the Council of the Institute desires it to be understood thai in giving
publicity to them it accepts no responsibility for the opinions or statements expressed.

N.B. — Max, 1904, consists of(&) twelve monthly -published sheets, of sixteen pages
each, printed in single column; containing "Original Articles" and substantial
44 Reviews " of recent publications ; all numbered consecutively 1, 2, 3, onwards : (b) a
variable number of four-page sheets, printed in double columns ; containing shorter
" Notices of Books," " Proceedings of Societies" and other current information ; and
numbered consecutively 201, 202, 203, onwards. These supplementary sheets are issued
with the monthly sheets as occasion requires ; but are paged to follow the twelfth
monthly sheet of the single-column series ; and should be so placed by the binder.

N.B. — Articles published in Man should be quoted by the year, and the
reference-number of the article, not by the page-reference ; e.g., the article which begins
on p. 7 below should be quoted as Man, 1 904. 2.

ORIGINAL ARTICLES.
With Plate A.
Easter Island : Inscribed Tablet. Dal ton.

On an Inscribed Wooden Tablet from Easter Island (Rapa Nui), ^
in the British Museum. By 0. M. Dalton, M.A., F.S.A. \

The inscribed tablet, both sides of which are figured on Plate A., is a small example,
8 • (> inches (1 1 cm.) loug, and made of hard dark-brown wood, probably the toro miro or
mimosa, which was employed for inscriptions as long as the supply of suitable trees
lasted. The characters are clearly cut, and extend not only over both surfaces, but, in
accordance with the usual practice, over both lougitudiual edges as well ; the wood has
received a dull polish by frequent handling. This interesting object, which has been
acquired by the Museum during the present year, is said to have been in the family of
its recent owner more than thirty years ; if the statement is correct, it must have
been among the first of its class to reach Europe, for the earliest meution of inscribed
tablets occurs in a letter of a missionary in 1864 (sec below), and the first specimens
made known to science were taken to Santiago, in Chile, in the year of the Franco-
Prussian War.

It may be said at the outset that I can make no new contribution to the decipher-
ment of that great Polynesian enigma, the writing of Rapa Nui. The following short
notes are intended to serve a two fold purpose : firstly, to make known a new
example ; and, secondly, to recall some of the literature bearing upon the subject, at
present inconveniently scattered through the pages of various and sometimes inaccessible
publications.

[ i j

No. 1.] J1AN. [1904.

Although the Polynesians were able to represent human, animal, and natural forms,
which in some cases they conventionalised to a remarkable degree, nowhere but in
Easter Island, the extreme outpost of the race, do we find anything approaching a
regular system of writing. Here and there we hear of chiefs attesting treaties with
Europeans by " making their marks " ; but in one of the recorded instances the Maories
used signs resembling their tattooing, and quite different from those here in question,*
in the other, the native contracting parties were themselves chiefs of Rapa Nui.f Ttoe
occurrence, in a lonely and isolated spot, of a script already to a certain extent
conventionalised, and therefore not absolutely primitive, has naturally given rise to
various speculations which it will be necessary to pass briefly in review.

Before proceeding to this task I will mention the most important visits made to the
island by European and American vessels, and touch upon the settlement of the mis*
sionaries, which, by establishing closer relations with the inhabitant*, brpught the
inscribed tablets into general notice.

The first white men to land upon Rapa Nui were the Dutch Captain Roggewein
and his companions, who gave the island the name it now commonly bears, because their
discovery fell upon Easter Day, 1721. Between this time and the latter half of the
nineteenth century it was visited by many navigators, among others by Captain Cook,
and its remarkable monolith statues and stone buildings were made kuown to the western
world. The tablets, however, seemed to have escaped notice until the year 1864, when
their existence was discovered by Eugene Eyraud, lay brother of the congregation of
the Sacred Heart of Picpus, who had repatriated three of the islanders kidnapped by the
Peruvians J in the previous year. It is in a letter of his to the superior of his order §
that the first mention of tablets is made. As a result of Eyraud's visit the congregation
soon afterwards established on the island a small mission, whose members during the
short and troubled period of their residence were largely instrumental, as we shall see,
in preserving what remained of the Easter Island inscriptions. The first tablets to leave
the island were probably two discovered by Father Zumbohm, and sent by him to Bishop
Jaussen, of Axieri, Vicar Apostolic of Tahiti, to whom five other examples were confided
in 1868. || In the same year H.M.S. Topaze passed some time at Easter Island, and
various accounts of her visit have been published.^ To the officers of this ship we owe
the two large monolithic statues now in the British Museum, but tablets do uot seem to
have come under their notice. Soon after the departure of the Topaze three tablets
appear to have been found, two of which were given to Captain Gana of the Chilian
corvette CHiggins, which touched at Rapa Nui in 1870.** Captain Gana deposited his
two specimens in the Museum of Santiago in Chile, where they still are ; the third tablet
was sent off to Paris, but never reached its destination. It was from casts taken from
the Chilian examples and forwarded to Europe that the first attempts to decipher the

* Reproduced at the end of L'lU de Paques, par Mgr. Tepano Jaussen, outrage posthume redxge par
le R.~P. Ildefonse Alazard, Paris, 1893. The work is also published in the Bulletin de Geographic,
1893.

t Reproduced, Journal of the Anthropological Institute of Great Britain and Ireland, 1874, p. 628.

\ It was in 1862 or 1863 that the Peruvians carried off about 1,000 natives 1o work guano on the
Chincha Islands. On this raid and the events which succeeded it, *ee Jaussen, LIU de Paques, pp. 4-6 ;
Snithsonian Annual Report, 1889, p. 514. About half of the surviving population was removed to
Tahiti and Eimeo by the firm of B rander, ami most of those who remained were taken by the
missionaries to the Gambier Islands.

§ Annates de la propagation de la foi, Vol. XXXVIII., p. 71.

|| Jaussen, Vile de Paques, p. 14 ; Abbe* Bund in Cosmo* let Mondes (Paris, 1884), pp. 410ff.

^ Papers by Mr. J. Linton Palmer,, Proceeding* of the Literary and Philmophical Society of
Liverpool, Vol?. XXIX. (1875), pp. 275ff, and XXX. (1876), pp. 255ff ; Journal of the Ethnological
Society, New Series, Vol. III., p. 371 ; and Journal of the Boyal Geographical Society, Vol. XL., p. 167.

** Smithsonian Report, p. 613 ; Palmer, Liverpool, 1876, p. 255.

[ 2 ]

1904.] MAN. [No. I

script were made by Mr. Park Harrison and others.* In 1882 Captain Lieutenant
Geiseler of the Imperial German Navy visited the island on the gunboat Hyaena ^ but
apparently failed to obtain tablets, though two were reported to be in the possession of
natives. Perhaps these were the identical examples procured by the officers of the
Mohican, United States Navy, who in 1886 made a prolonged stay, and endeavoured to
solve the mystery of the inscriptions in the manner mentioned l>elowJ. At some time
before 1876§ two tablets were procured by a Russian vessel, and these are now iu
St. Petersburg.!

As far rs I can discover, about fifteen of the tablets are now preserved in places
where they are accessible to students. Seven are said to be in Tahiti, two at Santiago,
two at Washington, two at St. Petersburg, one in the British Museum, aud one (a large,
but not very good specimen) at Berlin. Professor von Luschan informs me that two
were shown at a colonial exhibition in Paris in recent years, but whether these had been
brought from Tahiti or were new specimens I am unable to say. It may be convenient
to describe in the present place the general appearance of these tablets and the manner
in which they are inscribed. As a rule they are made of the hard mimosa already
mentioned, but in some cases pieces of driftwood of irregular shape have been pressed
into the service of the carvers. Some of the examples in mimosa wood are as much as
14 in. long,? so that the one here illustrated is among the smallest. The work was
executed with a point of obsidian, and wheu each line was completed the tablet was
reversed, so that every other line is upside down. Opinions seem to differ as to the
point at which the reading should begin, but as a rule the left-hand bottom corner" is
preferred. ** Tablets are often channelled with broad parallel grooves, within which the
inscriptions are cut, the object being in all probability to preserve the characters from
obliteration. A fine wooden gorget in the British Museum is figured with the tablet on
Plate A., as it has on it a line of characters incised with great clearness and worth
reproducing photographically for purposes of comparison.

In a short note like the present, one can but recapitulate the principal attempts
which have been made to decipher the Easter Island tablets. It is now generally agreed
that they are really signs of an ideographic nature, and it is comparatively easy to
distinguish birds, fish, natural objects, implements and weapons, &c, among them. But
from this to an interpretation of their meaning in the particular conjunction iu which
they occur is a very wide step, and few investigators have ventured to do more than
suggest a meaning for individual signs. Mr. Park Harrison,tt workiug from casts of
the specimens in Santiago, identifies in figures of men with albatrosses 1 heads the
Herronia or mythical beiug of native legend, and can point to turtles and lob* tors, an
well as clubs and ceremonial paddles like those made of hard wood which have boon
brought in some numbers from the island. He detects combats of men and auimals,
recognises dog faces and negrito heads, and iu a recurring sequence of human figures

♦ Journ. Anthr. />«*., Vol. III. (1874).

t Kapitan-lieutenant Geiseler, Die Oxter Intel \ eine Statu prtihittorincher Kultur in tier Siidtee
(Berlin, 1883).

J Paymaster W. J. Thomson, U.S.N., in Smithwnian Institution, Annual Jteport % Year endimj
June 30, 1889, p. 447ff.

§ Linton Palmer, Lirerpool, 1876, p. 255.

|| Mr. Tregear, Journal of the Polynesian! Sttciety, Vol. 1. ( 1 892), p. 101, nay* that a mate uf u ship
took a tablet to San Francisco.

•J Tregear, as above, p. 101.

** The Abbe Bund, Is* premier* hwroglyphe* de la Polynesie, in Ctwmu leu Monde* % p. 415, hUUm
that the beginning is at the lower left-hand corner ; so does Bishop Jausscn (p. 14) on tbc authority of
Metoro. Captain Geiseler, however (p. 25), say* the right-hand lower corner, the characters running
from right to left.

f\ Journ. Anthr. Inst., as above, p. 374.

[ ••* 1

No. 1.] MAN. [1904.

sees a genealogy of island chiefs whose forefathers may have lived thousands of miles
away in the west. Mr. Park Harrison's researches were admittedly tentative and made
no pretention to finality. It is otherwise with those of Dr. A. Carroll, a prologue to
which has beeu published in the Polynesian Society's Journal.*

This writer, with an almost magnificent confidence, claims to have settled the
question once for all. If I understand him rightly, he declares that the language
represented by the " hieroglyphs " is not Polynesian, but came from the American
continent, and that among the inscriptions can be traced words and phrases from the
Toltec, Quiche, Muiscan, and many other tongues, proving the mixed blood of the
peoples who came over to Easter Island more thau 500 years ago. On the tablets are
to be found relations of events which happened from about a.d. 600 onwards over ii
very wide region of the earth's surface, and there is mentiou of persons, places, and
circumstances alluded to by Spanish writers. Dr. Carroll asserts that when his grammar
ami vocabulary are published, everyone who wishes to read these important historical
and mythological inscriptions will be able to do so without difficulty. Meanwhile, as au
earnest of what is to come, he publishes three translations in the form of prayers, oue by
» woman for offspring, and two of a more general character for health and successful
harvest. The issue of the key to the enigma will be awaited with interest, more
especially, perhaps, by philologists with a taste for destructive criticism.

Bishop Jaussen, into whose possession several tablets passed, has made a serious
attempt to elucidate their meaning in the publication already cited. Among the natives
deported to Tahiti by the firm of Brauder and Boruier was a man named Metoro
Tauaure, son of Hetuki, oue of the class which claimed to have beeu instructed in the
art of reading. This man chanted from the bishop's tablets, but did not really read
them, for when interrupted he could not go on ; still, there appeared to be some corre-
spondence betweeu his recitation and the engraved characters, though the oral additions
were considerable, and the bishop took down the translations line for line. The result
was not encouraging. Far from being of historical importance, the recitatious proved to
be disconnected strings of phrases, unimportant in themselves and seldom forming a
comprehensive or continuous narrative. The bishop prints a comprehensive vocabulary,
classifying the characters under their various headings — gods, men, heaven, earth, sea,
auimals, birds, fish, plants, &c. — giving the meaning of each in the dialect of Rapa Nni and
in French, and evidently entertaining no doubt as to the correctness of the interpreta-
tions. But as to the historical value of the subject-matter thus revealed he is under no
illusion : iljaut s^y resigncr, he says in the large MS. which embodies his research,!
i7 rfy a rien la-dedans. His conclusion is supported by De Harlez, who finds the texts,
" unc collection de non-sens a dS/ier toutc intelligence lestee raisonnable," aud sees in
them mere groups of figures logically independent of each other. We are far, iudeed,
from the epoch-making revelations of Dr. Carroll.J

Bishop Jaussen brings out one or two points of some importance which tend to
show that the natives of Rapa Nui were still able in quite modern times to reproduce
the characters engraved on the tablets. Metoro, while waiting to begin his readings,
actually traced some of them on paper ; while one inscription was found to be cut on a
piece of a European oar.§ The bishop's vocabulary is of great interest, though the

* Journal of the Polynesian Society, 181*2, pp. 102ff.

{ C. de Harlez, Vile de Paque* et xex Monument* Graphiquex (Louvain, 1895), p. 1. The
bishop's MS. was entrusted to M. de Harlez, who quotes from it, but I am not awaie that it ha9 been
published. De Harlez gives a specimen translation which certainly differs in style from the fluent
prose of Mr. Thomson and Dr. Carroll.

% The results recorded by the Abbe Bund, Cosmo* lex Mondex } p. 413, were equally disappointing
Different natives chanted from tablet*, but contradicted each other flatly as to the correct chpnts to be
sung in particular cases.

§ I? lie de I'aatte*, p. 14.

[ 4 ]

1904.] MAN. Etfo. L

drawings of the characters are rather rough ; those used by de Harlez in the specimens
of translation which he appends to his own paper, appear to be derived from it. It may
be added that Bishop Claeseus of Batavia, to whom casts or rubbings of Easter Island
tablets were sent, declared that almost identical signs are carved upon rocks in Celebes ;*
and Bishop Jaussen is convinced that they came into the East Pacific from this part of
the world. One may doubt the accuracy of Bishop Claeseus' observation in this case,
but it may be recalled that the natives usually trace their proximate descent from Oparo,
whence the chief Hutu Matua came in a canoe bringing sixty-seven tablets with him.f

Captain Geiseler has also a few remarks to make upon the interpretation of the
characters. J He describes some of the signs carved in relief on the rocks on the south-
west face of Rana Kao, and identifies one of these (a bird-like figure which frequently
occurs on the tablets) with the god Make-Make. The conjunction of this sign with
another representing the female vulva is, he says, held to signify a birth ; and figures
of men fishing, to mark the seasons of the year at which certain fish were caught. He
does not quit the safe grouud of scientific caution, and believes that the language is not
that of a vanished people but that of the existing inhabitants of the island. This con-
clusion is borne out by what has been said above, that the natives were still able to
carve inscriptions after the advent of Europeans in these waters, as well as by the fact
that ceremonial paddles of the form in use up to the last occur both on tablets and on
carvings in stone.

The American expedition on the Mohican had with it photographs of the tablets
at Tahiti, and by a stratagem described by Paymaster W. J. Thomson, § an old man
named Ure Vaeiko, who was said to have been trained to read the characters in his
youth, was persuaded to attempt their decipherment. Like Metoro, Ure Vaeiko was
inspired by the sight of the photographs to chant or recite legends with fluency ; but as
the evening (which was not unconvivial) progressed, it was seen that he was not
actually reading the characters ; and when the photograph of another tablet was sub-
stituted, the same story was continued without the change beiug discovered by the
uarrator. Facts like these rather detract from the value of the legends printed by
Mr. Thomson, though it is quite possible that legends may have been originally repre-
sented on tablets, but at some subsequent time, when the scholarship of Easter Island
had begun to degenerate, came to be transmitted orally and simply learned by rote.
Tablets and interpretations might thus become mixed, though both might be independently
genuine.

Mr. Thomson's paper has been criticised by several writers, especially by Captain
Barclay, R.N.,|| and Dr. M. Haberlandt, of Vienna .f The latter reproduces two
of the tablets with their presumed translations, aud calls atteution to the occasional
discrepancy between the number of words in the oral versions and the number of

* Vile de Paques, p. 18.

t Linton Palmer, Lirerpool, 1875, p. 292. But Captain Geiseler (p. 43) mentions a statement
made by natives to Mr. Salmon, representative of Brander & Co., to the effect that their ancestors
came from the Galapagos Islands. Possibly tbe tradition originated after the Peruvian raid.

% Die Oxter Intel, eine Sttitte priihixtorhcher Kultur, pp. 24,25.

§ Smithsonian Institution, Annual Report, 1889, pp. 447ff. Mr. Thomson's paper is illustrated by
a number of excellent photographs and contains a useful account of the island and its antiquities.

|J Proceeding* of the Ihtyal (Jeo graphical Society of Auxt rulaxiu (Siuth Australian branch).
April 14, 1898. Mr. Edge- Partington has summarised Captain Barclay's criticisms in Man, 1901
No. 7, p. 10. Captain Barclay believes that great volcanic disturbances occurred on the island during
the time of tbe statue makers, and that all progress was checked, if not destroyed, by thin caure. He
apparently contends that the tablets could not fail to make mention of so terrible a catastrophe, and
that the silence of Mr. Thomson's translations on tbis point is against their accuracy. The argument
would be stronger (//) if we had a really large number of tablets to work from instead of less than
twenty, and (ft) if ic could be shown that alt the tablets were historical.

1 (ilohux, Vol. LXI. (1892), pp. 274-277.

[ 5 ]

Wo. t] MAN. [1904.

characters in the inscriptions which they are supposed to represent. Thus in one
instance 210 signs suffice for 89 words of text, while in another 660 are required to
render 80 words. The difference, he argues, is too great to be explained merely by the
superior terseness of one of the translations, and points rather to the conclusion that the
translations have really no connection with the signs at all. Further, the periodic
repetition of certain phrases in the versions is not balanced by any corresponding
repetition of characters on the tablets. Dr. Haberlaudt believes that Mr. Thomson's
experiments have not brought the problem a step nearer its solution, and that the ouly
chance was to find some native who really did understand the meaning of the characters
not one who, like Ure Vaeiko, only pretended to do so. That chance was, even at the
time of writiug, very remote, owing to the depopulation of the island and the death of
the older men.

It will be seen that the interpretation of the Easter Island script still offers a
field for enquiry, though the prospects of brilliant discoveries throwing fresh light on
the history or mythology of the South Seas would appear to be distant. But if further
study of the tablets is undertaken, it will be well for the investigator to hold his
enthusiasm in check, and to avoid the imaginative speculations which contact between
civilised minds and primitive ideograms seems almost fatally to eugeuder. It might be
worth while to photograph all the surviving tablets, to note the comparative frequency
with which certain signs or groups of signs occur upon them, and with the kuowledge
thus gained, to make a careful study of Bishop Jaussen's MS. Many of the characters
are obviously representations of recognisable objects, and compound signs seem to be
constructed on an iutelligible principle ; but for the reliability of abstract terms like
" good " or " brilliant," the accuracy of the bishop's vocabulary is now the only guarantee.
It seems that the tablets had some ceremonial significance, and only chiefs and priests
are said to have been taught to read them. The natives related that they were brought
together at certain seasons and their contents publicly recited.* It may well l»e that the
object of such assemblies was to promote by ceremonial means the increase of the crops
and the abundance of the fish on which the islanders largely depended for their food.f

If this was the case, some of the tablets may really have been carved with formulas
and prayers, though others may have contained genealogies and simple legends not so
immediately connected with the harvest. How and when it was that the people of
Rapa Nui made such a distinct advance upon all the other inhabitants of the Pacific
still remains very much of a mystery. There has always been a certain temptation to
explain this unique appearance of writing within the Polynesian area by an external
influence derived from the American continent. But, apart from other difficulties, the
Nahua and Maya scripts were both very different ; and Peru, which is nearest to Easter
Island, had no developed system of writing at all. And if there ever existed a written
language which the Incas suppressed for political reasous (Dr. Carroll, p. 102), we surely
know too little of it to base any arguments upon its peculiarities ! On the other hand,
Polynesia can show structures in stone, the erection of which demanded a skill in no
way inferior to that presupposed by the houses, platforms, and statues of Rapa Nui ;
and there is no doubt that wheu the island was discovered it had been occupied by
Polynesians for a very long time. Until the evidence in favour of a " prehistoric "
occupation by men of another race is stronger than it now is, I shall prefer to believe

* Jaussen, LIU de Paque* y p. 15.

t Such practices mast have fallen into desuetude before Europeans became familiar with the
island. Father Zumbohm (Jaussen, L 1 le d* Paquet, p. 12) says that the natives cared so little for the
tablets that they were actually using them as fuel when other wood was scarce, and implies that he
only saved a few with difficulty. Travellers whose objects were other than the propagation of the
gospel have accused the missionaries themselves of the burning — in this case, I think, without
supporting the charge by sufficient evidence.

[ 6 1

1904] MAN. [Nob. 1-2.

that the megalith ic remains of Rapa Niii, as well as its system of writing, are products
of Polynesian culture. The very remoteness of the island may have contributed, before
the period of decadence set in, both to the peculiarity and the excellence of its monuments.
Exceptional though it is, this beneficent influence of isolation is not unprecedented.
Those parts of prehistoric Europe which, like Eastern Hungary and Scandinavia, were
never in the main stream of traffic and intercourse, were left at leisure to develope a
bronze civilisation infinitely superior to that of their less isolated neighbours. This
superiority we explain by the operation of uormal causes without invoking the deus ex
machina of an alien teacher. May not the course of events have l>een somewhat similar
in this far corner of the Pacific Ocean ? O. M. DALTON.

Marriage Prohibitions. Thomas.

The Or iff in of Marriage Prohibition ; a repiy to Mr. Lang (Max, A

1903. 101). By N. W. Thomas, M.A. L

Mr. Lang's theory in its revised form postulates the following steps : (1) The

exogamous local group ; (2) accepts animal names imposed from without ; (3) becomes

consciously heterogeneous, distinguishing imported women by means of their tatu marks ;

(4) retains the original group-name of such women and applies it to their children ;

(5) elevates to the dignity of totems the animals from which these intragroupal names
are derived ; (6) regards people of the same totem as akin ; and (7) extends the rule of
exogamy, originally due to sexual jealousy, and develops the idea that marriage withiu
the kin is wrong.

At some time during this process, through the adoption by two local groups of
preferential customs in respect of eligible spinsters, the phratry organisation grew up.
With the rise of kinship bars to marriage members of one connubial group found their
choice still further limited to women of the other groups not of their own totem. This
complication was too much for the savage brain (to-day capable of working still more
complicated rules), and to simplify matters it was agreed to rearrange the totems or
rather the kins, hitherto, we may suppose, distributed with more or less regularity
between the two groups, in such a way that each kin belonged only to one phratry.
Prior to this rearrangement the two totem-kins named after the connubial groups were,
in Australia at least, in some way eliminated and disappeared.

It may be noted that Mr. Lang's scheme would work just as well if the totem kins
were developed within the group by some other process than the retention of the old
group uames, e.g., by the rise of co-operative magical societies. The increase in the size
of the group, equally implied by Mr. Lang's theory, which must have preceded the
formation of intragroupal organisations, would not improbably in the long run result in its
disruption ; the intragroupal names might then assume more prominence, especially if
there was a tendency for societies of the same name to perform their ceremonies in
common. If group exogamy still remained the rule, matters would be much simplified
by arranging the totem-kins wholly ou one side or the other ; for if auything like
marriage by capture prevailed the raider might not stay to enquire if the bride belonged
to the right group, but would, on Mr. Lang's tatuing hypothesis, have a satisfactory
means of distinguishing her totem-kin. The old rule of group exogamy would of course
operate iu favour of kin exogamy if, as I suppose, magical groups were formed.
Mr. Lang's view is open to the following objections : —

(a.) It does not account for the fact that phratric uames — e.g., Eaglehawk, crow —
are commonly found over wide areas aud are not distributed in a way that Mr. Lang's
"casual " origin could explain.

(b.) Mr. Lang assumes that the animals of the original connubial groups did not
become totems, and, consequently, that there were no totem-kins corresponding to the
original groups. This can only have taken place if a rule were developed that men of

[ 7 ]

Wo. 2.] MAK [1604.

the Emu group might not marry women of the Emu kin, and vice versa. This would
involve, however, a new rule of exogamy distinct from both group (local) and kin
(totem) bars to marriage. This must have come about either (a) because the Emu kin
were regarded as potentially members of the Emu group (an extension of group exogamy
the existence of which it would be hard to prove, or (b) because the Emu group or Emu
kin were (legally) kindred, and as such debarred from marrying, an hypothesis similar to
that which I attributed to Mr. Lang as the explanation of the rise of totem-kin exogamy
and by him repudiated in favour of the view criticised below. In either case, on
Mr. Lang'* theory two whole kins were debarred from marriage or compelled to
cbauge their totems. I do not know which is less improbable.

(c.) Mr. Lang accounts for the rise of intra-kin exogamy (not as I imagined when
I wrote my review, on the theory that the marriage of near kin came to be regarded as
wrong) by making it a corollary of other totem tabus. Against this view it may be
said that the clansman is by no meaus the equivalent of the totem animal. The latter
may not be eaten, but endocannibalism is not unknown ; agaiu, the totem may often
not be looked at, but there is, so far as I know, no similar tabu with regard to the
clansman. It seems, therefore, highly problematical if this idea would suffice to bring
about the rule that members of the same totem kin may not intermarry. Mr. Lang,
when he wrote Social Origins was of the same opinion.

(d.) If the rule of group exogamy was still valid, how (and this tells to some
extent against my suggestion also) did the savage, in making the rearrangement of
kins in the phratries, come to disregard it ? It is clear that if the Bats and Sprats were
origiually divided between the Emu and Kangaroo phratries, the Emu group Bats were,
after their transference, eligible mates for the Emu group Sprafs, if the Bats were iu one
phratry and the Sprats in the other. And yet Mr. Lang tells ns that phratric exogamy
is the successor and lineal descendant of group exogamy. Unless he supposed the
rule had been previously somewhat relaxed, it is not easy to see how Mr. Lang can
postulate such a reversal of it.

(e.) As to the descent of the group-names to the childreu, I am by no means sure
that it was such a natural process as Mr. Lang conceives. Origiually birth, or even
residence within the group, conferred the group -name we may suppose. It is clearly a
somewhat revolutionary proceeding for not only the incomers, but even the children
born within the group, to receive a uame other than the group-name. The fact that in our
own day we speak of " the little Browns " is hardly on all fours. Their name is Brown,
but Mr. Lang supposes little savages to have rebaptised " the little Bate," who already
had personal names, and thus introduced the practice of giving surnames.. That seems
an unlikely origin, and' agaiu I suggest the magical society as a more probable key to
the mystery. We must not forget that, so far as personal uames are concerned, savage
practice is the other way, and the father (and sometimes the mother) take their names
from their children and not the other way.

As to non-totemistic peoples with group names derived from animals, I might be
tempted to suggest the clan Cbattau, who, thanks to a folk etymology, believe themselves
to be descended from the cat. Are cat-superstitious specially prevalent among them ?
But I have a better example to my hand. The Sakais of the Malay Peuiusula have
five endogamous auimal or plant-named groups and numerous sub-groups. If, as
Mr. Lang suggests — in answer to my point that he has not attempted to show the
development as distinct from the gene»is of totem ism — the totemistic superstition
was an inevitable consequence of the totem name, Mr. Lang should evidently find here
a state of things resembliug the legendary state of the Arunta. So far as 1 know,
nothiug of the sort exists. I submit that this is because the animal name alone is not
adequate to evoke totemism (indeed, Mr. Lang tacitly coucedes this by agreeiug that the
local auimal-named group did not develop totemism).

. 8 ]

1904.] MAN. [Hob. 2-3.

I pointed out in my review that the idea of kinship seems too abstract a motive for
the rise of a new law of exogamy. In hi* criticism of my remarks, Mr. Lang seems to
think that I was combating the idea that kinship through females was a natural and early
development, bat this is a misapprehension. It is obviously one thing to know yoar owu
mother (kinship as a fact was, I imagine, what Darwin wrote of, the relationship of
mother and child, not tribal or group kinship), and another to believe that all persons
who bear your mother's name are your kindred, simply because they bear her name.
Even if the idea of kinship did arise in this way within the totem group (and not, as is
perhaps more probable, because all members of the totem group were engaged in the
same magical ceremonies and akin to the same animal, and therefore to one another),
we are still very far from a prohibition of marriage between members of the kin on
account of the idea that they are kiu.

One point I omitted to notice in my review I may mention here. Neither
Mr. Atkinson nor Mr. Lang, so far as I have observed, have made any mention of the
light the former's theories throw on Jungsteurecht. X. W. THOMAS.

Obituary : Spencer. Brabrook.

Herbert Spencer: born April 27 9 1S20; died December 8, 1903. q

By E. W. Brabrook, C.B., F.S~4. V

In the general fe?ling of regret at the loss of a great thiuker which has been
expressed through oat the civilised world, the Anthropological Institute has a large
share, for the life's work of Herbert Spencer was essentially an anthropological work,
and be took occasion more than once to testify his sympathy with anthropological
studies. It i* true that the bent of his mind, the general condition of his health, and
the imperious demands of the wide range of thought he proposed to himself and pursued
with so much success, led him to shun rather than to seek the membership of scientific
societies, all of which would have been proud to enrol him on their lists, and that, in
pursuance of this method, he never became a Fellow of the Institute ; but he contributed
to it on June 22, 1 875, an important paper as a guide to its Fellows in the psychological
section of the work to be undertaken by them. He gave in it u a glance over the whole
" subject of comparative human psychology," which he divided into three portions :
(1) The degrees of mental evolution of different human types, generally considered ; (2)
Inquiries concerning the relative mental uatures of the sexes in each race ; (5) The
more special mental traits distinguishing different types of men. Under the first division
be suggested inquiry into mental mass, mental complexity, rate of mental development,
relative plasticity, variability, impulsiveness, and the effect produced by mixture of
races. Under the secoud, the degree of difference between the sexes, the differences in
mass and in complexity, the variation of the differences, the causes of the differences,
mental modifiability in the two sexes, and the sexual sentiment. Under the third,
imitativeness, incuriosity, quality of thought, peculiar aptitudes, specialities of emotional
nature, and the altruistic sentiments.

Mr. Spencer showed that such a study must influence profoundly our ideas of
political arrangements, rectify our conception of the changes gradually taking place in
social structure, conduce to a salutary consciousness of the remote effects produced by
institutions upon character, and help to rationalise our perverse methods of educatiou,
and so Uj raise intellectual power and moral nature.

Ten years afterwards Dr. Alexauder Bain observed of this paper that " thus to
** formulate a scheme of human character is not an easy matter. It presupposes a
" careful aualyei* of the mind, an indication of the fundamental attributes of our mental
** nature, and some mode of estimating the degree or amouut of these several
•* attributes/'

l 9 J

No. 3.1 MAN. [1904.

Mr. Speucer, by this paper, not only displayed his sympathy with the work of the
Anthropological Institute, especially on its psychological side, but also furnished a map
of the country anthropologists have to explore, founded upon his owji large experience
in that branch of investigation.

On another occasion Mr. Herbert Spencer attended a meeting of the Institute and
addressed some valuable observations to the Fellows present. It is to be remembered,
moreover, that he was always ready to help any individual anthropologist who sought
his aid, and he did not allow the absorbing nature of his own pursuits to restrain him
from the free exchange of views with others. He was for many years an habitual
frequenter of the Athenteum Club and a member of the X Club, which consists of ten
eminent members of the Athena?um. His social qualities won him the esteem and
regard of all who were admitted to his friendship, amoug whom were many of the most
distinguished men and women of the time. It may be noted in this connection, that he
had a great love for music.

While we all feel regret that a prince in the realm of science and a great man has
fallen, there is consolation in the reflections that the work to which he consecrated his
life was completed ; that, though his health was frail, his life was prolonged beyond
the average, and that for several years he was able to enjoy the recollection that he
had fought the good fight and kept the faith. It is so often otherwise. So many lives
of promise and of power are ended re infecta, with reserves of untold thought lost to
the world for ever, that a life like Herbert Spencer's, entered upon with a clear insight
into the work which he had to do, and persevering in that work by a powerful will in the
face of all discouragements, till it was finally fully achieved, shines as a bright exceptioti.

The ordinary events of his life may be recorded with little detail. He was bom at
Derby, on the 27th April, 1820, and died at Brighton on the 8th December, 1903.
He was the son of William George Spencer, secretary of the Philosophical Society of
Derby, and had his early education in a school kept by his father. He was the last, and
hence presumably the fc< fittest," survivor of thirteen children, and we have it on good
authority that, like many great men, he resembled his mother rather than his father.
When thirteen years of age, he went to study with his father's brother, Thomas Spencer,
rector of Hinton Charterhouse, in the county of Somerset, to whom he owed his interest
in economic and social questions, and who is referred to iu that connection in his Man
v. The State. At seveuteen he began the study of the profession of a railway engineer
under Charles Fox, and continued working at it until he was twenty-five. He then
relinquished that profession, but not before he had made some contributions to its
literature and invented some ingenious applications of mechanical science ; and he applied
himself instead to general literary pursuits. In 1848 he became sub-editor of the
Economist ', and retained that position four years.

Among the numerous contributions which, up to that time, he had made to reviews
and other journals, there were several that indicated the direction of his thoughts towards
that subject which occupied the remainder of his life, notably a pamphlet published iu
1843 on The Proper Sphere of Government ; and it was in 1831, during the time of
his connection with the Economist that his first volume appeared under the title Social
Statics, or the Conditions Essential to Human Happiness Specified, and the first of
them developed. At that time, he " did not yet recognise evolution as a process co-
" extensive with the cosmos, but only as a process exhibited iu man and iu society/ 1
He contended that *' the ultimate man will be one whose private requirements coincide
" with public ones. He will be that manner of man who, in spontaneously fulfilling
" his own nature, incidentally performs the functions of a social uuit, and yet is only
" enabled so to fulfil his own nature, by all others doing the like."

This was followed in 1855 by the Principles of Psychology. In this work he
traced the development of the first dawnings of intelligence to the multiplication and

[ 10 ]

1904.] MAN. [No. 3.

co •ordination of reflex actions, and indicated that evolution was the key to all the
problems of organic life, and thus prepared the way for the Origin of Species by Darwin,
published in 1859, who quotes from Spencer the definition of the principle of life, that
it u depends and consists in the incessant action and reaction of various forces, which, as
" throughout nature, are always tendiug towards an equilibrium ; and when this tendency
" is slightly disturbed by any change the vital forces gain in power" ; and who, in the
Descent of Man, refers to him as "our great philosopher."

In I860 Spencer announced the intention of applying the principle of evolution to
the construction of a complete system of philosophy, which should show how the several
sciences form a complete aud harmonious whole, in organic connection with one another,
and that the universe is governed by a law of continuous development. To this under-
taking he gave the name of a Synthetic Philosophy, and announced the intended order of
the treatises in which it was to be developed as follows : — First Principles, 1 vol. ;
Principles of Biology, 2 vols. ; Principles of Psychology, 2 vols. ; Principles of
Sociology, 3 vols. ; Principles of Morality, 2 vols.

The scheme was carried out in the following order: — First Principles, published
1862; Principles of Biology, 1864; Principles of Psychology, being the treatise of
1855, re-written 1870 ; Principles of Sociology, vol.'l, 1874 ; Principles of Morality,
vol. 1, The Data of Ethics, 1879 ; Principles of Sociology vol. 2, 1882 ; Principles of
Ethics, vol. 2, 1893 ; Principles of Sociology, vol. 3, 1896.

Thus, after long intervals, due in some respects to the want of public support, partly
to ill-health, partly to the vast extent of research necessary, the magnificent idea was at
last fully realised. Not, by the way, that he himself ever considered his work perfect
or final, for to the last he devoted all the time he had for work to the revision of
portions of it. It was felt by Mr. Spencer's friends and admirers that the completion
of so great an undertaking ought to be marked in some special mauner, and Mr. Speucer
was induced to accept from them a portrait (finely painted by von Herkomer), which
will ultimately grace the National Portrait Gallery.

Incidentally to the monumental work itself, Mr. Spencer published a u umber of
other essays, some arising out of the investigations set ori foot for accumulating the
material, others called for by the events of the day or by controversies arising on the
questions dealt with in his treatises. One of especial interest to the anthropologist is the
compilation of anthropological facts, collected under his superintendence, and published
under the title Descriptive Sociology. These form some of the raw material from which
the conclusions arrived at in the Principles of Sociology have been worked out, and
are derived from the observations of anthropologists on savage and civilised races.
They thus illustrate the method by which the anthropological data for that portion
of the work were brought together. Other branches of the same portion related
to ceremonial, political, professional, ecclesiastical, and industrial institutions, and
were founded upon similar laborious inductions. The result is that we possess
in the Pr'niciples of Sociology a complete monograph on that important brauch of
anthropology.

The portion of the Synthetic Philosophy which dealt with the principles of morality
or of ethics, including the masterly treatise on Justice, seeks to establish on a scientific
basis the principles of right and wrong in regard to human couduct generally, aud is
thus the ripe fruit of thoughts on that subject which had been working in his miud ever
since those youthful days when he published his letters on the right and wrong of political
conduct, writteu in 1842 to The Nonconformist newspaper. In the volumes of Ethics
and in his writings on Education, Mr. Herbert Spencer has shown how anthropological
science may be practically applied to the good of man and the promotion of human
progress. May it not be hoped that, as Paul Topinard has well expressed it, the teaching
of Herbert Spencer on the necessity of developing altruism and other hereditarv

[ ii ]

Nos. 3-4.]

JJAN.

[1904.

tendencies for the better may be more effectual than even he ventured to expect, and
that man may in time be induced to undertake the direction of his own evolution towards
the ultimate triumph of truth, of justice, of liberty, and of enlightenment ?

E. W. BRABROOK.

New Zealand. St. George Gray.

A Maori Flageolet. By H. St. George Gray. m

Mr. Edge-Partington's article in Max, 1903. 106, has forcibly reminded the writer *T
that an equally interesting — if not so fiuely carved — wooden flageolet from New Zealand,
has recently been acquired by the Somersetshire Archaeological Society, and is exhibited

in Taunton Castle Museum amongst the large collection of
archaeological and ethnographical specimens presented by
Dr. Walter Winter Walter, of Stoke-under-Ham, Somerset.
The flageolet, of which the accompanying are illustrations
(front and side views, scale T \ths linear), is 610 mm. in
length — nearly 2 feet — greatest width across centre 47 mm.,
thickness at centre 41 mm. As in the case of Mr. Edge-
Partington's specimen, the mode of manufacture is clearly
discernible in the side view. After being cut out of the
solid (in the grain of the wood) aud carved, it was split
lengthwise ; the side view well shows that the line of
cleavage, although very fairly straight, is not perfectly so.
The amount of wood removed by the hollow ing-out of the
two sides was evidently considerable, as the flageolet, in its
present state, only weighs half -a- pound. The four sets of
lashing round the body of the instrument have all dis-
appeared ; the photographs, however, show the position of
them, the bauds varying in width from 20 to 29 mm.

The aperture in the centre (23 by 1 1 mm.) is represented
by the opened mouth of a grotesque human head in low relief,
the right eye and the circular figure below the mouth being
iulaid with haliotis shell. (The shell of the left eye is now
deficient.)

Near the upper end is a head, length 74 mm., at a
distance of 16 mm. from the mouth of the flageolet, round
which is a narrow ** bead." The lashing between the head
and the bead has also disappeared. This head or mask has
shell eyes, the pupils, as in the case of the head below,
forming part of the wood carving. The head is in high
relief, the mouth aud pointed chin, as shown in the side view,
projecting from the surface of the instrument to the extent
of 8 mm. The protruding tongue — the usual Maori expression of defiance — does not
exteud beyond the margin of the lower lip. In the position which would be occupied
by the ears, were they represented, is a plain raised encircling baud, 6 mm. in width,
connecting the head on the front half of the flageolet with the other section. The hole
at the upper or larger end is of somewhat oval shape, 21 by 17 mm., the front or
ornameutal side forming a deeper curve than the under half.

At the lower end is a small head, length 35 mm., chin towards the centre. The
eyes evidently had originally been inlaid with shell. Between the head and the knob at
the end the binding of cane or fibre remains.

The flageolet, judgiug from its smoothness and the wearing down of the sharp
edges of the carved heads, has had prolonged use, and is probably a very old specimen

[ 12 ]

1904.]

MAN.

[Nob. 4-5.

The back of the instrument differs from Mr. Edge-Partington's specimen in being
unornamented, bnt in spite of its smooth surface, it still bears traces of the tooling which
formed the last stage of its manufacture. II. ST. GEORGE GRAY.

England : Archsdology. St. George Gray.

A Cepper Celt from 8taple Fitzpaine, Somerset. By II. St. George r

Gray.

This celt, the property of the Somersetshire Archaeological Society, is exhibited at
the head of the somewhat large series of Bronze Age implements — chiefly Somerset —
of which Taunton Castle Museum is justly proud. Its existence was noted a few years
ago by the Hon. John Abercromby, and is recorded by Mr. George Coffey in his paper
on " Irish Copper Celts " in the Journal of the Anthropological Institute, Vol. XXXI.,
1901, p. 278, a paper of a character that was much needed at the time of its publication,
and one which was eagerly perused by all students of the transitional period connecting
the late Neolithic and Early Bronze Ages. This paper recalled to the minds of

antiquaries, in a remarkable manner, how original, brilliant, and correct General Pitt
Rivers was in his views as regards the development of bronze implements, and the
continuity in advancement from implements of stone to those of bronze, as propounded,
in his famous series of lectures on " Primitive Warfare," in 1867-69.

The implement represented in the accompanying illustration, full size, was found in
November 1857, at Staple Fitzpaine, 5 miles south-east of Taunton, and close to
" Castle Neroehe," an eminence which towers up to the south to 905 feet above sea
level, and where excavations have recently been conducted. (See /Vor. Sow. Arch.
Soc, Vol. XLIX., 1903, pt. ii., pp. 23-53.)

There appears to be no printed record of the actual finding of this copper celt. I
say " copper " from the appearance of the metal, which has the usual red lustre of
copper. Doubtless it contains a small percentage of tin and probably other minerals
in small quantities, but it has not yet been analysed by an expert chemist.*

* The wriUr would be glad to bear from an analyst who is willing to examine the implement.

[ 13 ]

Nos. 5-6.] MAN. [1904.

The celt is of ibe thin, flat, triangular variety, length 112 mm., with concave
curves at the sides. It rather closely resembles Nos. 12 and 13 of Mr. Coffey's paper,
differing chiefly from them in having a more rounded, but irregular, butt-end. From
the side view it will be seen that the implement tapers both ways from a maximum
thickness of 8 mm. There is ample proof that the celt was cast, from the fact that a
slight ridge exists along the centre of the curved sides, indicating the line of junction
of the two sides of the mould. This ridge has been partly removed ; had this been
completely the case, the celt would have presented an almost quadrangular cross-
section. The expanded cutting edge (width 62 mm.) is slightly bevelled, but never,
apparently, to a very sharp edge ; it is sharpest iu the centre of the edge, where it is
only 1 mm. in thickness. As will be seen by the side view, there are some transverse
incisions near the butt-end, which, of course, is not unusual.

The surface of the celt is uu usually smooth for an implement of this description ;
there are, however, some very slight "pittings" and striations. The weight of the celt
is 8£ ozs. avoirdupois. H. ST. GEORGE GRAY.

REVIEWS.
Ireland : Archaeology. Joyce.

A Social History of Ancient Ireland, treating of the Government, Military *%
System, and Law; Religion, Learning, and Art; Trades, Industries, and Q
Commerce ; Manners, Customs, and Domestic Life, of the Ancient Irish People. By
P. W. Joyce, LL.D., Triuity College, Dublin, M.R.I.A. London : Longmans, 1903.
xxiii + 632 ; xii + 651. 23 x 14 cm. Price 21*.

The comprehensive character of the task which Dr. Joyce has set himself in
compiling a social history of the Irish people is indicated by the sub- title of the book
which contains the results of his labours ; of its magnitude, evident enough to those who
are acquainted with the material and the literature of the subject, some idea may be
gathered from the fact that Dr. Joyce's list of authorities consulted occupies 24 pages
of small type. Great, however, as was the undertaking, it was one for which Dr. Joyce,
as one of the commissioners for the publication of the Ancient Laws of Ireland, was
peculiarly qualified, and be has accomplished his task with conspicuous success.

The materials from which the author has drawn his information are partly literary
and partly material, these latter, of course, being the relics of the early Irish implements,
weapons, &c, to be found in museums and private collections. The literary sources are
many, and of varying value, as is indicated by Dr. Joyce in a judicious summary in his
opening chapter. Among these, of course, the romantic cycles take a prominent place,
while of equal, if not of greater value in some matters, are the Brehon Laws, with the
publication of which the Commission has been principally concerned. Other sources of
information which have been used are the Glosses — the author considers Cormac's
Glossary, which he compares to desiccated soup, his most valuable and fertile source of
information — the Martyrologies and Lives of the Saints, Annals, Genealogies, and Local
Memoirs, and Records, and, finally, the accounts of English, Anglo-Irish, and foreign
writers, these latter, as a rule, being of little value. Dr. Joyce's methods should serve
as a pattern. He has brought the material evidence into close relation with the literary,
and his conclusions are characterised by an extreme caution, no statement being made for
which evidence cannot be brought forward from either or both sources. Although
professedly dealing with Ireland before the Anglo-Norman Conquest, the author has not,
of course, neglected to take cognisance of the subsequent history, and frequently illus-
trates or explains the earlier period by reference to our knowledge of the uses and
observances of the later. The chapters which deal with the social organisation, the
family life, and the tenure of land, will be found particularly useful, for here the author's

[ 14 ]

1904.] MAN. [Nob. 6-8.

intimate acquaintance with the Brehon Laws has been of the greatest value, and had his
book no other merit, it would, at least, be of importance as containing, in a convenient
and accessible form, evidence which, perhaps, has hitherto been somewhat neglected.

It would be impossible within the limits of space at our disposal, to give an adequate
idea of the wide and comprehensive character of Dr. Joyce's work, but enough has been
said to iudicate its scope. It must suffice to say that no side of the life of early Ireland
has been neglected, while, notwithstanding the size of the book, there is hardly a line
which could have been omitted without loss. Dr. Joyce has produced a book which
should prove of the greatest value, whether as an introduction to the detailed study of
Irish history or as a book of reference. E. N. F.

Pacific. Smith.

Nimt'fekai (or Savage) Island and its People. By Percy Smith, F.R.G.S. ^
(From the Journ. Polynesian Soc, Vols. XI., XII.) Wellington, 1903. Pp. 133 I
with Plates. 24 X 15 cm.

The paper from the pen of Mr. Percy Smith which has been appearing from time to
time in the Polynesian Society's Journal, describing Niue (Savage) Island and its inhabi-
tants, was completed in the June number of that journal and has since been issued in
pamphlet form. This paper has already been alluded to in Man (1903. 52) in conjunction
with Mr. Basil Thomson's work upon the same locality ; (Savage Island. John Murray,
1902.).

Mr. Percy Smith had the opportunity of a four months* residence on the island, and
with his already great experience of the Polynesian race has succeeded in gathering
together a most complete history of the islaud and its people. With regard to the latter
he is of opinion that there are two distinct types occupying opposite ends of the island
known as Tafiti and Motu, and that the frequent state of warfare iu which these two
people existed seems to emphasize this fact. He thinks that the Tafiti people are a later
migration coming from the west, originally, no doubt, from the Fiji group, where the
Polynesians sojourned so long. Tafiti is a name given by the Samoa us to Fiji, and is
equivalent to Tahiti in Eastern Polynesia. The other name, Motu, probably applies to
the original migration. Unfortunately they have few historical traditions, and, what is
really very strange in a branch of the Polynesian race, no genealogies of consequence.
In appearance, he says, they bear the greatest affinity to the Moriori of the Chatham
Islands, more especially the men.

The paper is full cf interesting matter well put together, and is divided into sections
and illustrated. J. EDGE-PARTINGTON.

Anthropology. Tylor.

Primitive Culture: Researches into the Development of Mythology, Philo- q
sophy, Religion, Language, Art, and Custom. By Edward B. Tylor, D.C.L.,
LL.D., F.R.S. Fourth edition, revised. London : Murray, 1903. Two volumes,
pp. xii + 502 ; viii + 470. 23 x 15 cm. Price 21*.

In a short preface to thi-, the uew edition of Primitive Culture, which has been so
long expected and desired, Professor Tylor points out the most important alterations
which have been necessitated by the vast amount of evideuce which has accumulated
since the last edition of the book was published some twelve years ago. The reader
will be surprised to find that, although, as was only to be expected, Professor Tylor's
views have undergone some chauge, that change is, comparatively speaking, small and
unimportant. On turning to that sectiou of the book which deals with the questiou of
totemism we find that although a great mass of evidence has been brought to light aud
greater attention has been devoted to the consideration of this and cognate problems
than is, perhaps, the case with almost any other branch of anthropology, notwithstanding
certain necessary modifications and alterations, Professor Tylor's theories remain, in all

[ 15 ]

Nos. 8-9.] MAN. [1904.

essentials, unaffected. To recognise the fact that conclusions at which he arrived more
than thirty years ago, when the first edition of the hook was published, still hold goo 1,
is surely to pay the highest tribute to Professor Tylor's genius and scientific insight.

E. N. F.

Bibliography. International Catalogue.

International Catalogue of Scientific Literature. P. Physical Anthropology, Q
First Annual Issue. London : Harrison and Sons, 1903. Published for the
International Couucil by the Royal Society of Loudou. Pp. xiii + 224, 22 x 14 cm.
Price 10s. 6d.

The bibliographer has a thaukless task. The qualities which bring success in the
compilation of a bibliography — a wide rauge of knowledge, the capacity for unflagging
attention and vigilance, and a patieuce overcome by nothiug, however tedious or laborious
— are not common. It is, therefore, no matter for surprise that few bibliographies are
published upon which it would not be possible to pass a more or less adverse criticism.
But when it is remembered that the International Catalogue is compiled not in England
alone, but in almost every European country, in the colonies, Japan, and the United
States, and only collected and edited in England, it becomes obvious that its organisation
allows a great possibility of divergence of view, of omission, and even of error. In
these circumstances, those who are responsible for the publication of the present volume
of the catalogue are to be congratulated upon the succes3 with which, on the whole,
they have overcome the difficulties with which they have had to contend.

The catalogue is divided into two parts : the tirst, the author's catalogue, consists of
a list of papers and books, published in 1901, arranged under the authors' names in
alphabetical order. In the second, the subject catalogue, the papers are arranged
according to the subject with which they deal, a duplicate entry being made when a paper
deals with more than one subject. Admirable as this arrangement is in theory, it cannot
be said to have been quite successful in practice, though this is a fault of the schedule
rather than of the general plan. The schedule of the subject catalogue contains far too
great a number of subdivisions. To catalogue some papers adequately under the schedule
would require at least twelve separate entries, a proceeding obviously impossible, if only
on the ground of expense. An attempt has therefore been made to steer a middle course
by making use of the " general " headings of the sections when two or three entries
under the subsections were required, a fact which should be borne in mind by those who
use the catalogue in work dealing with a section only of auy particular subject.

At the time of the publication of the schedules much dissatisfaction was expressed
that only physical anthropology should have been included in the catalogue, and owing
to the representations of a section of the delegates, certain changes were made to meet
the views of those who desired the catalogue to cover the whole field of anthropology.
Certain further changes have been made during the preparation of the first issue, which
have made it possible to compile a catalogue which, as far as its scope is concerned, will
prove eutirely satisfactory to those who were responsible for the early changes in the
schedule. It is somewhat misleading, however, that the title " Physical anthropology "
should be retained.

These criticisms apart, however, the catalogue is a monumental achievement and
reflects great credit on all who were in any way connected with it. It should prove
absolutely invaluable to those engaged in the study of the subjects with which it deals.
Practically every paper of auy importance, whether published separately or in a periodical,
has been included. There are, of course, omissious. Some couutries, \vc are told in the
preface, had not, at the time of publication, seut in material ; but the general value is
not seriously impaired by this. We may, however, hope that all countries will recognise
the importance of sending in details so that the catalogue may become even more
international in character than it is at present. II. 8. K.

Printed by Kyre and Spottiswoode, His Maiestv's Printer*, Last Harding Street, E.C.

Plats D.

Man, 1904.

STONE IMPLEMENTS FROM THE THAMES VALLEY.

1904.]

MAN.

[No. 10.

ORIGINAL ARTICLES.

England : Arohseology. With Plate B. Treacher.

On the Occurrence of Stone Implements In the Thames Valley 4A
between Reading and Maidenhead. By Llewellyn Treacher, F.G.S. IU

The district to which the following notes refer is that part of the Thames valley
which lies between Reading and Maidenhead. Covering the preseut bottom of the
valley and resting on terraces at various heights on either side are deposits of gravel,
sand, and loam, in which stone implements have been found. It is not intended to give
a complete list of all the isolated finds, but only to notice those localities where con-
siderable numbers occur within a small area. From the bed of the present stream, and
occasionally from excavations made in the gravel at the same level, many neolithic celts,
both of the chipped and polished

.-..THAMES VALLEY

P • MlXOilTMK riMM

H - NfOllTMK nwos

FIG. 1.— MAP OF PART OF THE THAMES VALLEY.

varieties, have been obtained at
Tilehurst, Bourne End, and
Maidenhead. At no inter-
vening place have more than
one or two been found. Surface
finds are also more abundant
near Tilehurst and Maidenhead
than anywhere else in the
district. The inference is that
these places were, in neolithic
times, fords where fighting took
place, or they may have been
the resorts of big game hunters.
In either case the axe-heads
were dropped into the river and
covered with gravel or sand if
at any time the stream shifted
its course.

Implements of the paleolithic age are far more numerous in the district than those
of the neolithic* Most of them occur in the terrace gravels at heights of from 60 to
120 feet above the bottom of the valley. Above the village of Caversham there is a
spread of gravel resting on a chalk hill at a level of about 114 feet above the river.
In an old pit at Toot's Farm, now built over, the following section was shown : —

Ft. In.

5. Stony soil, about -..---

4. Sandy gravel with large unrolled flints and pebbles, with
flint implements, about - -

3. Fine shingly gravel -

2. Hard compact gravel -

1. Chalk.
The continuity of the section was much broken by pipes in the underlying chalk
into which the gravel had sunk, but there was no indication of these pipes on the surface
of the ground. Most of the implements were found at the base of No. 4, and they were
very abundant. From an area of a quarter of au acre at least 600 or 700 perfect
specimens were obtained by collectors, besides innumerable flakes and broken and
unfinished implements. Many more had been broken on the roads before their existence
was recognised, and many probably still exist under the houses. The prevailing type
was that known as the pear-shaped with a cutting edge all round, but more pointed
forms were not uncommon. Most of the specimens showed good secondary chipping,

I " ]

No. 10.]

MAN.

[1904.

%*t'a1Vr«M •»•»

FIG

8ECTI0N ACROSS THAMES VALLEY BETWEEN READING AND CAVER8HAM.

and few had any signs of wear. Two or three were made of quartzite pebbles, and the
common size was 4 to 6 inches in length.

On the opposite side of the valley, and at a level of about 75 feet above the river,
a deposit of gravel, about 12 or 14 feet thick, extends across the tongue of land between
the Thames and Kennet. Many excavations have been made in it, and in most of them
i m plemeuts
have been
found. From
one large pit
in particular,
known as the
Grovelands or

Tilehurst Road pit, some hundreds have been collected. They appear to occur at all
depths in the gravel, and most of them are more or less rolled and worn. The
common type is an oval with cutting edge all round, and the usual size is not more than
4 inches. With them are also found many large flakes, fresh and sharp, but without
any secondary chipping. Bones and teeth of mammoth, horse, deer, &c. are common in
this gravel, which rests on clay and sand of the Reading beds.

Lower down the valley, on the south side, in the parishes of Sonning and Woodley, is
an extensive terrace of gravel at a height of from 60 to 95 feet above the river. In two pits
by the side of the London and Bath road at Charvil Hill and Sonning Hill, and also along
the top of the Great Western Railway cutting, manv implements have been found. There
is no particular type characteristic of this locality. Pointed, oval, and intermediate forms
all occur. One very fine-pointed specimen 9 inches long was found at the eastern end of
the railway cutting. Some of the implements are much rolled and broken, while a few
are quite sharp and fresh. Flakes are rare. The gravel is about 8 or 10 feet thick, i»
well stratified, and rests on clay.

Crossing the Loddon at Twyford we find what appears to have been a continuation
of the last-mentioned terrace. At Ruscombe at a level of about 60 feet above the river
there is a considerable extent of gravel of small thickness resting on sands and clay of
the Reading beds. While the gravel was being removed to get at the underlying clay
many implements were obtained. They are usually in a fairly fresh and unworn condi-
tion. The commonest types are a long oval form and smaller ones somewhat similar to
the Caversham specimens. Large pointed ones also occur.

A few have been found at Shiplake on the opposite side of the Thames Valley at a

level of 90 feet
above the river,
but although
there are ter-
races of gravel
at similar levels
to those already
mentioned, few, if any, implements have been met with in the valley round by Henley
and Mar low.

Between Cookham and Maidenhead they occur again in great numbers. In a large
pit at Cookham, 85 feet above the river, at least 200 have been found. There is no
characteristic type, nearly all known forms being met with, and most of the specimens
are more or less rolled and worn.

A similar account may be given of several pits nearer Maidenhead, but there is, or
was, one about midway between that place and Cookham, near the hamlet of Furze
Piatt, at a level of 75 feet above the river, in which many implements have been found
together with quantities of flakes. The gravel here, which rests on chalk, is about

I 18 ]

SKi^WW *•

FIG. 3. — SECTION ACROSS THAMES VALLEY BETWEEN RUSCOMBE AND SHIPLAKE.

1904.]

MAN.

[Nob. 10-11.

8 feet thick, but nearly all the worked flints occurred within 2 feet of the bottom.
The most noticeable thing about these is the small amount of labour their makers
expended on them. A very few blows seem to have been sufficient to bring the flints
to the required shape, and of secondary chipping there is often little or none. The
average size is small, although a few large and massive specimens have been fouud.
Many are pointed with uu wrought butts, some have a straight axe-like cutting edge,
and shoe-shaped forms are not uncommon. There is no prevailing type, and yet it is
not difficult to identify implements from this pit. Probably 500 or 600 have been
obtained in all, besides flakes and wasters.

While there is considerable difference in the types of the implements from the
various localities in the districts, there is little evidence to show whether there was any
progress or otherwise in their manufacture during the period in which their makers lived
here. Those from Caversham, which are the highest, and presumably the earliest, have
more and finer chipping on them than those from Furze Piatt 40 feet lower down, but it
should be remembered that palaeolithic man made his implements for use and not for the
cabinet of the modern collector, and he may have considered it a sign of progress to be
able to attain his desired end quickly by a few well-directed strokes rather than by
laborious secondary chipping.

As to the way in which the implements came into their present position in the gravel,
Caversham and Furze Piatt, where so many flakes are found, may well have been working
sites on the banks of the river, where suitable flints were easily obtainable ; while such
a place as Grovelands, with its abundant mammalian remains, was a spot where large
beasts were killed or drowned and their careases cut up for food. In any case it appears
that palaeolithic implements occur together in groups in the older gravels much in the
same manner as neolithic implements do in the later ones at the present level of the
river. LLEWELLYN TREACHER.

Nigeria. Martin.

Notes on some Native Objects from Northern Nigeria. Being
Extracts from a Letter frotn E. F. Martin, Local Correspondent of the Anthropo-
logical Institute.

I am taking up the train of my previous letter to you in which I described some of
the objects I had already secured (cf. Man, 1903. 87).

I was delighted a few days ago to get hold of a welcome addition in the form of a bell
used among many of the pagan tribes in these territories when on the war-path, or when
intending to pounce down on some caravau which happens to be passing through their
country. This bell is of peculiar
shape, and is sounded by beating it
with a detached piece of wood or
iron. The accompanying sketch
(Fig. a) is a rough drawing of the
bell. It is not circular, but rather
oval-shaped, as can be seen by the
section (Fig. b). This instrument
is found on the south bank of the
Benue, as well as in the large stretch
of country between the Niger and
that river, right up to the Hausa
states.

A dagger I have lately secured
is a very good type of Muntshi metal work. The handle is a loop of iron which slips
over the hand and serves as an aid to the fingers when pulling the string of the bow

[ 19 ]

Nob. 11-12.] MAN. 0904.

when the arrow is fixed. The blade is shaped like a spear-head. When worn, the blade
is at the back of the hand. A ridge runs down the centre of the blade from the handle
to the point. The loop handle is decorated in rope and herring-bone patterns. The
weapon is about eight inches long, the blade alone being about four and a half inches
long and one aud a half to two inches wide.

Another Muntshi article I have secured is a string of beads made from the scales of
a fish, and worn by women around the waist over the hips. The beads are flat
discs, one inch in diameter, and often circular ; they appear to be greatly sought after
by the women.

A species of battle-axe used by the pagans hereabouts gives a good idea of their
style of work. The axe-head is long and narrow. The handle is of hard wood, the hole
in which the metal blade is fixed being generally, if not always, burnt through. The length
of the blade is about fourteen inches, and the handle eighteen inches. The usual primitive
rectilinear forms of decoration are found, as a rule, on the blade.

The Muntshis make their own cloth ; a coarse cloth, certainly, but well woven and
strong. To the eye, a piece of this cloth, such as I bought the other day, looks like
bagging, but is very soft. I am collecting various specimens. As a general rule they
do not trouble to dye their cloth. The women wear a strip about the waist ; the men
very often wear no clothing at all.

The Muntshi arrow poison is very virulent, causing deadly pain and cramps, and
death from tetanus, generally, within half an hour. The arrow heads are long,
pointed and barbed, and are fixed on to the shafts by a tang run up into the reed, which
is then securely bound round. The whole head is then dipped into the poison, which is
allowed to dry.

The arrow head is perhaps two inches long. The whole arrow about three feet.
The bow is made of a piece of hard, pliable wood, and is about four feet from tip to tip.
The string is made of hide. The bow is without decoration.

I am unable at present to let you have a photograph of the Muntshi type. The
country is hostile aud quite inaccessible from here by an officer in my position. Still,
I hope to secure some photos of this interesting and warlike people some day, if not in
person, at any rate, through some of my friends.

An ivory Muntshi wristlet (Fig. c) is also among my specimens. This ornament is
not completely round, but opeu to allow passage to the wrist at one side. On the back
cau be noticed a projection.

I have never yet seen a bracelet in this country made to open and shut on a hinge,
they are all on the principle of this primitive Muntshi ornament — even the best
Mabommedan work that I have met not excepted. £. F. MARTIN.

England : Archaeology. Clinch.

Coldrum, Kent, and its relation to 8tonehenffe. By George Clinch, 4j%
F.G.S. XL

The district which lies immediately to the north-west of Maidstone is remarkable
for its interesting series of prehistoric megalithic remains, none of which have yet
received from archaeologists the attention they deserve. The best known of these
monuments is Kits Coty House, a cromlech which stands out boldly on the south-western
slope of North Downs, near Blue Bell Hill,, Aylesford. The capstoue, which is in situ,
is supported by three nearly upright stones arranged in plan like the letter H. As this
structure is divested of its earthen mound it is easy to see that the large stones of which
it is composed are masses of Sarsen stone in their natural forms, and entirely free from
artificial shaping.

Lower down the hill is a fallen cromlech, originally of more elaborate, complicated,
and ambitious character. These remains are locally known as "the countless stones."

t 20 ]

1904.) MAN. [No. 12.

In Addingtou ± ark, nearly six miles W.S.W. from Kits Coty House, are several
other megalithic remains, more or less displaced or overturned, but notable for the large
size of the stones of which they are composed.

To the north of Addington Park, and at a distance of less than two miles, stands
Coldrum, or Coldreham, at once the most remarkable' and the least known of the whole
series.

The site of Coldrum is sufficiently elevated to command extensive views over the
Medway valley, including Kits Coty House. It is in a lonely spot, away from the main
road, and visitors do not often find their way to it. It is not surprising, therefore, to
find that very little has been written about this ancient monument, but it in remarkable
to find that those* who have published descriptions do not seem to have observed
the regular form of the stones, which, in the opinion of the present writer, is its most
important and characteristic feature.

The remains of Coldrum comprise a central cromlech without capstone, an
irregular line of large blocks of stone on the western side, and traces of tumulus.

The cromlech, which is still partly buried in earth, consists of (i.) two very massive
upright blocks of stone, that to the south being 7 feet above the surface of the ground,
1 1 feet long, and 2 feet 3 inches thick, whilst the other stone, standing parallel with
it, nearly 5 feet to the north, is of slightly smaller dimensions ; (ii.) two large
stones lying at the western end of the cromlech ; and (iii.) two stones about midway
between the uprights, the remains probably of a dividing partition cutting the space
between the upright slabs into two parts, and so forming two adjoining sepulchral
chambers.

There is no reason to believe that the two stones at the western end are the actual
blocks by which the mouth of the chamber was originally closed ; those to the east
have probably fallen down the steep slope which has been caused at that point by
digging for chalk.

The size of the upright stones at Coldrum is remarkable, and their regularity of
form is a point of eveu greater importance.

The supporting stones at Kits Coty House have a distinct slope inwards, giving
irregular forms to the sepulchral chambers, but at Coldrum the upright stones are
approximately vertical ,
and the chambers were
doubtless of regular and
symmetrical shape.

The irregularly -
placed stones, enclosing
a small space on the
western side of the
cromlech, represent a
part only of what was
probably a quadrangu-
lar or oblong enclosure
placed at the foot of
the tumulus by which fio. 1.— coldrum. kest : ground plan of the cromlech and
the whole cromiech was undisturbed stones around it. the disturbed stones on

.... , , THE N.E. OP THE DOTTED LINE ARE NOT MARKED.

OTigiually concealed.

Seventeen of these massive stones remain in what is probably their original position,

but the remainder, on the north-east side and in continuation of the north and south

• W. M. Klin ler.s IVtrie, Archreologia Cuntiana, Vo'. XIII., pp. 14, 16; and George Payne,
Collectatiea Cantiana (1893), pp. 139-141.

[ 21 ]

« t

<o&0* o

i. ». — *

No. 12.)

MAN.

[1904.

<30

X)0 <30

O c>cd

W10, J.— SIEV1 «il{i»VNH I' I, AN Off THE CROMFIi M

AND >IJ "NE8 r SHOWING AFFINITIES WITH TOI

'UK AT COLDBUM.

-, have uufortuuately I- bed in the process* of i i jf%llc

already mentioned*

The arrangement of the -t.»iM- of the Ooldnim OrOBllfl I ally one of groat

rarity (#<?<? Fig* I)." A
central cromlech
luining two sepulchral
ohftatl
mounted und

•ughlv nqnare or
Obtoilg tomnlu-. the
sides of whieh

partly supported aud
clearly outlined bjf a
line of stone blocks of
laracter. The
whole structure sug-
gests a lale data iti t lie
neolithic age, a period of development when the form of the sepulchral chambers
was followed out in the construction of the mound.
An interesting example of n

features In common with that i

nun, exist^ at Si. m frD, in Hanover*

ti admirably illustrated by

plan (see Fig. 2), photographic I LI
ami biief description by Friedr. Tewes
in Die Stdngraber der Provinz Hon*
novt I, and although it is Larger

than I he Coldrum example, it presents
the same ohloug cromlech caused by
the double sepulchral chamber, and
tin* aatue oblong em t blocks

ol stone following the form of the
eromlech.

The regular form of the uptight
DOS «i ( oldrum is ■ matter of con-
siderable importance, and differentiates
this from the other niegalitbic remains
of Kent, The good proportions and
regular, flat surfaces are, in the writer's
opinion, suggestive of artificial shaping
ami perhaps dressing (jtee Fig. 3).f if
this view be not accepted, urnl if it be
held that, the forms are natural, it is
still fairly obvious that the careful St
tion of appropriate stones [ndieati
degree of culture aud J appreciation of
form equally indicative of a late period in the neolithic age. Indeed, n<» one who is

* J am indebted to Mr. E, H. W, nankins plan in T%6 FIj tot this

illustration, and niy thanks are due to Mr. Dunkin for bis kind permission to reproduce it In

f Unfortunately it ll j to the surrounding treefl ml the unfavourable

nature of the ground, to get a photographic flew at close quarters*

naegali

line

structure!

presenting

many

nLu /,

Vol

30LDBUM, W of

rn< vst.

fttE CHOM

1904.] MAN. [Nob. 12-13.

• familiar with Stonehenge caii fail to recognise the general similarity existing between
the forms of its upright stones and those of Coldrum.

Most writers ou the subject of Stonehenge have found it difficult to explain how the
stones, of which that celebrated circle is composed, were conveyed to their present
position on Salisbury Plain ; whilst the means by which they were brought into regular
form, and reared to an upright position have long awaited reasonable and satisfactory
explanation. These points, as well as the larger questions of the age and purpose of
Stonehenge were entirely and fully explained in Professor Go w land's paper on the subject
read, in December, 1901. before the Society of Antiquaries of London.*

The squared condition of the stones is one of the most remarkable features of
Stonehenge, and it was long held by archaeologists that it involved the use of metal
tools, and that the period to which the circle should be ascribed could uot by auy
possibility be earlier than the age of bronze. Both these conclusions have been disproved
by Professor Go w land's recent discoveries. It has been shown that the rough shaping
and dressing of the stones have been produced by tools made of quartz ite boulders and
flint. The absence of ancient metal objects among the discoveries at Stonehenge, and
the presence of stone tools by which the shaping could be produced, form good reasons
for placing Stonehenge within, but probably at the latter end of, the stone age.

In some repects there is a striking similarity between Coldrum and Stonehenge. In
both we find that artificially-shaped stones are employed, and in both we have the idea of
enclosure within a line of stones. Both, too, may be fairly referred to the end of the
neolithic age. But here the parallel ends, because Coldrum was obviously a sepulchral
pile, whilst Stonehenge, although following to some extent the same arrangement, was
conceived on a more ambitious scale, and probably designed for a very different purpose.

The megalithic structures of Kent furnish a valuable series illustrative of the
constructive skill of the neolithic race. Kits Coty House is particularly interesting
from this point of view. We there see that, although the stones are entirely unworked,
great care and skill have been used in the construction. The two main upright stones
(answering to the two perpendicular sides of the letter H) are really leaning somewhat
inwards and resting against the middle upright, which is at right angles to them. In
this way the pressure of the weighty capstone is so distributed as to strengthen the
whole structure ; and, although Kits Coty House has lost its tumulus, and is situated on
the side of a hill, where, owing to rain-wash and agricultural operations, one would not
expect to find very good foundations, the cromlech still stands in its original position.

At Coldrum, however, we see a distinctly higher development of constructive skill.
The cromlech has been so built that the upright stones stand erect, although no capstone
remains to hold them firmly in position.

Much of this venerable monument has already been disturbed, and this accounts for
the blank part left to the north-east of the dotted line in Fig. 1, but it is most desirable
that what remains should be carefully preserved, and it should certainly be placed under
the provisions of the Ancient Monuments Protection Act. GEORGE CLINCH.

Slam : Folklore. Annandale.

The Dynastic Qenius of* 81am. By Nelson Annandale, B.A. *q

It is well known among Oriental scholars and students of comparative religion 10
that the kings of Siam, as of many other Eastern states, were formerly regarded as being
superhuman, and that their sacred persons were treated with a most elaborate ceremonial.
Though the present monarch, King Chulalongkorn, has abolished much of the ritual with
which his predecessors were treated, this feeling is still strong among the Siamese.
There is one point, however, with regard to the kingship of Siam ou which I would be
very grateful for further information, viz., the provenance of the belief that there is a

* Itecent Excavation* at Stonehenge. Archrrofcgia, Vol. LVIII., pp. 37-118.

[ -'3 ]

Hob. 13-14.] MAN. [1904.

captive Genius or demi-god imprisoned in the palace at Bangkok. This Genius is
known in Lower Siam as the Red Lord (Phra Deng in Siamese and Tuan Merah in
Malay.) I was told in 1901 by a Patalung Siamese, a clerk in the Government offices
in Jalor, that the Red Lord was a dewa or demi-god who flew down from heaven (surga)
at the commencement of the preseut Siamese era, namely, that of Bangkok, at the end
of the eighteenth century, a.d., and that it was still kept in chains in the king's house
in the capital, having the appearance of a red man with wings. He said that if it
escaped the present dynasty of kings would come to an end, and the kingdom would
probably cease to be independent. He also said that the symbolical figure on the
modern Siamese coinage was a likeness of the Red Lord. I have heard in Lower Siam
that one of the reasons why the Mohammedan rajas tributary to Siam object to the pre
sentation of the gold and the silver tree (Bung a Mas and Bunga Perak), which it is
customary for inferior princes to send to their superior, is, that they consider this act not
only a coufession of dependence but also an act of idolatry or devil-worship, all offerings
of the kind being formally presented to the Red Lord before the king receives them. I am not
aware whether there is an image of the Red Lord in the palace at Bangkok, or whether
the payment of tribute is accompanied by any ceremony of a dramatic or symbolical
nature ; indeed, this is another point ou which I should be glad of information. It is, of
course, possible that the whole story as told me was the product of some Malay raja's
subtle brain. The Royal Family of Siam are naturally believed by ignorant peasants to
have all the resources of magic at their disposal, in addition to whatever supernatural
merit there may be in their descent. For example, it is believed that the late king had
oue of bis sons tatooed in such a way that he became possessed of what the Malays call
"the great science" (hilmu besar), namely, the art of becoming invisible, so that he
might spy upon the officials of the kingdom. But I do not know of any other modern
king who is believed to keep a captive celestial god, in whom the fortunes of his royal
house are embodied, and whose escape would be the ruin of his state. Malay rajas,
however, are protected by a " State Demon " (Jin Karoja-an) (Skeat, Malay Magic*
p. 40), which does not appear to differ much from any other spirit, being no more than
the protecting spirit, or perhaps the * soul,* of the royal trumpet, which it guards agaiust
the touch of the profane. Nor do I know whether the same individual is the protector
of all Malay Princes, but seeing that I have obtained very definite evidence of an
underlying and somewhat esoteric pantheism, or pandemonism, in the religion of the
Malays, at any rate in the Siamese states, this is not, perhaps, a point of much importance.
In any case, the idea of a spirit chained in bodily presence would appear to be a
primitive one. N. ANNANDALE.

Malay : Folklore. Hervey.

The Legends of Bukit Dato' B&tu QMong and of Tanjuno; Tuan am

(Oape Rachado) in Malacca. By D. Hervey, C.M.G. It 1

About fourteen miles inland, nearly due north of Malacca Town, in the parish of
Macbap, lies a hill called Bukit Dato' Batu Gedong, i.e., "the Hill of the Elder of
Warehouse Rock."f The base of this hill joins that of another of considerably greater
height and size, known as Bukit Besar (" Great Hill "), the slopes of which are covered
with large granite boulders. There is, as may be expected amongst Malays, a legend
accounting for this name, which runs as follows : —

All the country round, down to the present coast line, used to l>e sea, and Batu
Ggdong was the ship of the Dato' whose name was Saiyid Hitam, and who used to sai

* Malaka, a tree bearing a green fruit, used in pickles and also medicinally (Phyllanthu* jwct't-
natus). At one time the botanical name was Phyllanthu* emblica , at another Emblica officinalis, the
term emblica being apparently the European effort to copy the Sanskrit name dmalaka, from which
the Malay name derives. The root word is the Sanskrit A »<la, acid.

t " Hill, elder, rock or stone, warehouse," because of the square hou9e-like shape of the rock.

[ 24 ]

1W>4.] MAN. [No. 14.

about the East to Acheh (Acheen in Sumatra) and Stambnl (Constantinople) trading.
The name Saiyid means a descendant of the prophet through his daughter Fatimah ; so
all the Saiyids claim to be, but a great many Arab adventurers have laid claim to it
without any right, and even forge papers to support their claims. Hi tarn means black ;
it is a common proper name amongst Malays. This Saiyid had a son named AH Sultan
(eminent, noble, conqueror), who had two vessels of his own. Ali Sultan bad an uncle
uamed Malin D£wa, # of Bukit Panchur Darat, who was a great Pawangt (medicine-
man). Every month or two Malin Dewa used to go to Batu Sabong near Bukit Panchur
LautJ and have a cockfight. He went down there with his nephew, and lost at the
cockfight. Then lie prepared to sail for Stambul via Pulau Bgsar§ and Java (i.e., the
Straits of Sunda). While making their preparations for the voyage ihey found that
Dato' Saiyid Hitam had already set sail without waiting for them. Ali Sultan, enraged
at this, with the aid of Malin D&wa, pronounced a curse which wrecked the Dato's
ship and turned it to stone, but, before it turned into stone, it broke in two, and this is
marked by the cleft iu the rock, where the Dato' used afterwards to keep his fowls and
goats, aud a pestle and mortar ; these latter people have since removed. This " turning
to stone " is a favourite incident in Malay legend.

The Dato', after his ship was turned to stone, used to live in the cave under the
rock. Malin Dewa and Ali Sultan were also wrecked on the way, while the latter's
ships wore likewise turned into stone, and form what is now known as Bukit Prahu
(** vessel hill "). At the same time all this part of the couniry was turned from sea into
land.

While Bukit Dato' Batu GSdoug is much smaller than Bukit BSsar, the rock from
which it takes its name is a fine block, the dimensions being about 50 ft. in length,
20 ft. in height, and 30 ft. in depth before you come to the cleft, behind which the rock
extends some way further back.

The rock overhangs iu front, a portion of the base not reaching the ground ; this
part forms the cave occupied by the Dato\ It contains a few boulders, and in a
considerable part of it a man can stand upright. It may measure about 15 ft. by 6 ft.

Another legend of the neighbourhood relates that Dato 1 An tan BSsi] used to trade
with Pinang (the island and settlement of that name, derived from u pinang," the areca
palm, Areca catechu), but he having became bankrupt his ship was turned to stone at
Gadek, where it remains on the plain.

After that be removed to J 2 m Sn tang, near Machap, where people still go and pay
their vows.

The Antau Best and Lgjong Bat tit are still to be seen, it is said, at Gunong
Angsi, a mountain range ## forming part of the boundary line between the States of
Rcmbauff and Sungai Hujong.JJ

This Dato' An tan Bcsi had the reputation of great physical strength, being in the
habit, according to the legend, of hauling his three-masted ship ashore all by himself.

• Malin, probably con up ted from the Arabic Mallim, learned {Mualim, intrepid in battle, and
Muslin, a revealer, are possible alternatives) ; Deuxi, saint, deity, genie.

t Cf. Amer. Ind. " Pow-wow."

\ Panchur, spout ; Ltiut, sea, t>., Spout Hill near the coast, to distinguish it from the preceding
Bukit Panchur inland, which Hmilarly has Darat, " inland/' added to it.

§ The chief of the Water Islands about eight miles south of Malacca.

|| Elder of the (ft&f) iron (jintan) pestle.

^ '* Stone mortar, Le*u»g, mortar." The rice-pounding mortars are commonly made of wood, a
heavy piece with a hollow scooped in it.

•• Gunong means " mountain."

If Said to derive by a kind of metathesis from the merhau tree, yielding a very five timber, Afzelia
palembanica, one of the T<egumino8fe.

XX Sungai "river"; HujimgJ' point.

r 25 ]

Nob. 14-15.] MAN. [1904.

There is more than oue Hercules in Malay legend. The noted Si Badang has more than
one State claiming him.

Cape Rachado ( Tanjung Tuan,* so named by the Portuguese) -lies al>out thirty
miles N.W. of the port of that name extending well out into the Straits of Malacca.
Round the point meet powerful currents, which in unfavourable weather become so
dangerous, that all vessels give the point known as Ptilau Intanf a wide berth.

On the south side of the main promontory is a beautiful little bay known as TSluk
Rubiah (Teluk means " bay "). The name Rubtah is taken from that of a pious lady
reputed to have given herself up to devotion ou a rocky islet close by called Pulau
MeVjid (" mosque-island "). She is stated to have been buried on the shore of the bay
which bears her name. To the left of the landing-place a large mass of quartzite rock
projects from the hill, near the foot of which are two never-failing springs of clear
water. At this rock the votaries pay their vows.

This lady is supposed, according to one native account, to object to vessels passing
that way, and when she wishes them ill and desires to wreck them, she causes loud
explosions as of artillery to be heard at the point. This has reference, no doubt, to the
reverberations of the surf among the rocky cavities of the headland in rough weather.

Before the construction of the lighthouse on the top of the hill the remains of an
old kramat were visible there. A kramat is a spot sacred from the presence of the
tomb of a holy person, or from some natural object to which special powers are attributed,
due to the protection of some supernatural being ; at such places people of various races
aud faiths are wont to pay their vows, coming from long distauces for the purpose. J
The place was known as " Padang Chauti."§ D. HERVEY.

REVIEWS.
Early Britain. Codringfam.

Roman Roads in Britain. By Thomas Codringrou, M.Insi.C.E., F.G.S. *p
With large chart of the Roman roads, and small maps in the text. London : 1 9
Society for Promotiug Christian Knowledge, 1903. Pp. iv + 392. 11 x 17 cm. Price 5*.

This book, forming part of a series which has for its aim the presentation of
Early Britain at great historic periods, treats at considerable length the question of the
Roman road system in England aud the south of Scotland. The subject is, perhaps, an
academic one and does uot lend itself to anything but detailed exposition ; and this
Mr. Codrington has sought to give.

Unlike other branches of Roman archaeology the study of the remaius of these
communications has very little attraction in itself ; indeed, except in isolated cases such
as that of the paved causeway over Blackstoue Edge, some four miles from Rochdale,
the remains of a Roman road are not at all likely to attract the attentiou of a casual
observer. The variations in the methods of construction due to local peculiarities of
material aud situation, render it very difficult to lay down any geueral definition of a
Roman road to be used as a test in doubtful cases ; and the popular belief that Roman
roads were invariably straight is refuted by numerous instances to the contrary, generally
occasioned by the need for gentler gradients or safer defence. Thus the two obvious
criteria — Vitruviau regularity of construction and unswerving directness — seem to be
put out of court to a great extent. But the fact remains that in many cases a road

* Tanjung, "point," " headland" ; Tuan, "lord,"' "master," but also, as in this Cise, according to
legend, applied to the other sex. Here the Titan is " Tuan Petri" the princess of Mount Ophir, a fairy
being said to have left the print of her foot on Gunong Dato' in Rembau— an anything but fairy-like
print!— on her way back to Mount Ophir.

f Intan, "diamond " from the quartz crystals to be found in the rocks.

X From the Arabic karamat, venerable, also a miracle, from harm, a religious man.

§ Padang means a plain or level spot, Chantik or Chanteh means " pretty," but I was assured it
was neither, but Chanti, for which no meaning could be found.

[ 2(5 ]

1904.] MAN. [Wo. i5 #

known to be of great age and in parts showing signs of careful construction with layer*
of stone covered with gravel and grouted with inortar, coiuoidea with the natural shortcut
way from one Romau station to another ; and this in the case of suoh a road as Watllng
Street receives corroboration from the Antonine Itinerary. The subject of tho Itineraries
is so beset with difficulties that it is, perhaps, enough to say that Mr. Codriugton has
dealt with it somewhat briefly in his introduction. The identification of place names is
always hazardous, and the ease with which the numerals donotiug distanoe oiut he
falsified is clearly shown by Horsley's emendations in his Britannia liamana.

Mr. Codriugton's work, then, started naturally with tho observation of those known
roads, the Watling Street, Erming Street, Riknild Way, Fobs Way, and so forth ; but
incidentally the ramificatious of side roads from such " trunk lines " called for study ;
and it is iu the detection of Roman " branch lines " that the charm and the danger of
the work lies. Iu many cases, indeed, old limits, such as parish and county boundaries,
throw considerable light on the subject ; but it would seem that in many cases the Roman
road was deserted after the Roman evacuation of Britain, and such traffic as thore was
passed along older lines, such as British trackways, or struck out new coursos for itself.

This seems to have been the case at least with Ickueild or Ikuild Street, which,
though it in parts coincides with Roman branch roads (as from Newmarket to Chester-
ford), seems in general to represent a highway of other time*. Thus it may happen
that parish boundaries, though of extreme antiquity, do not follow Roman, but other
tracks ; and in general it may be said that where undoubted Roman remains do not exist
in the vicinity, no tests of mere directness or of demarcation of districts can be held as
proof of Roman origin. Nor can stress be laid on the* presence of such names as
Stratton, High Street, Cold harbour, and so forth, which, indeed, in mauy cases actually
occur in connection with Roman remains, but in others are found to be due to the
influence of ecclesiastical Latin, i>., to the presence of a mediaeval monastery.

A glance at Mr. Codriugton's map will show the extremely fragmentary state of
our knowledge of the course of Roman roads in this country ; in many cases a branch
road that strikes boldly oat for some distance from a main line dies away in uncertainty
without pointing to any definite goal. And it is, perhaps, unfortunate that the supposed
course of such roads should be represented at all upon a map which purports to be
scientifically constructed ; fact and conjecture are not sufficiently distinguished. That
the Romans ever pUnned a complete road system we cannot be sure ; for rapid transport
of troops such highways as were necessary were no doubt constructed as need arose, and
afterwards maintained, but the making of branch roads must have l>eeu largely dictated
by private interests, and mauy of the apparent " deverticula ** may have been little more
than lengthy drives to the villa of some local magnate. This view of the incompleteness
of the road system is borne out by similar facts in Italy, and may perhaps acexmut for
the difficulty of rapid mobilisation of troop* that more than onee confronted the Rowans
upon the outbreak of disturbances iu unexpected quarters.

It is not, therefore, possible to hope to make a diagram of Roman communications
as perfect a* a mil way map ; and, perhaps, it is not unfair to say that in this respect the
archaeologist must find Mr. Codriugton's book somewhat imperfect. To criticise it in
detail would \m itnpo»*ible without undertaking the Labour of personally going over all
the ground covered by the book : and how great thst labour would be it is easy to tell
from the perusal of a single chapter,

Mr. CodriugtouV book cannot claim to be so much a contribution to the general
literature on Rouuau Britain, a* a paiuttak iug survey of numerous roads all possessing
more or lees ••laiuj to Koui«u origin which when taken together constitute the bulk of
our knowledge u* to the *.ru-t \*** of traffic during the Imperial occupation.

C. H. BLAKI8TON.

f & ]

STos. 16-17.] MAN. [1904.

Portugal. " Portugalia."

Portugalia : — Materiaes para o estudo do povo portuguez. Vol. I., Part 4. +{\
Kicardo Severe, Rua de Cedofeita, 548, Oporto. 222 pp., 16 full-page plates ID
aud numerous illustrations in text. 28 X 20 cm.

The first eighty-five pages and most of the illustrations of this, the concluding
number of the first volume of that admirable publication, Portugalia, are devoted to a
series of articles on the dolmens of Portugal. In 1868 M. Pereira da Costa published
an illustrated description of several of the antas or dolmens of Portugal, and, since
that time, M. Cartailhac and other French, Spanish, and Portuguese archaeologists have
written upon the subject, and their works have been laid under contribution by the
late W. C. Borlase in the second volume of his Dolmens of Ireland, but the dolmens
figured in the present work are apparently not the same as those illustrated by previous
authors, so that the total number of remains must be rather large ; it is, indeed, said
that 200 have existed in one district. The local type seems to l>e a roughly circular
chamber, with or without a short passage leading to it ; there is no apparent rule as to
orientation, but all seem to have been more or less buried in tumuli, and were doubtless
tombs, though the absence of bones and funeral furniture, or any account of finding any,
is specially noted by the authors. So far there seems to be nothing unusual about the
dolmens themselves, but one at least of them appears to have contained a number
of very remarkably ornameuted stones, many of which are pierced, apparently for
suspension as amulets. Several of these are marked with little pits like small u cup-
markings,^ some of which are further ornamented with Hues like rays ; on others
grotesque faces are carved, and others are incised with figures of animals of the nursery
nondescript kind, amongst which, however, are some unmistakable reindeer or stags,
stalked by equally unmistakable archers. Some of these stones furnish specimens of
more than one variety of ornamentation, and one of them has been called u Noah's Ark,"
ou account of the number of different animals represented upon it. Finally, there
are stones inscribed with characters, one set of which, at least, may be as susceptible of
translation as the inscription on the celebrated Newton stone in Aberdeenshire, of which,
at least seven different versions, in almost as many languages, have been propounded.
The nature, situation, singularity, and variety of these objects suggest that they should
be regarded with circumspection, but caution has, no doubt, been duly exercised by our
Portuguese colleagues.

There are many other articles of great interest in the number before us, but the
space at our command will not permit a notice or even an individual mention of any
of tbem. A. L. L.

Physical Anthropology. Schwalbe.

Die Vorgeschichte des Menschcn. Von G. Schwalbe. Brauuschweig : druck *>v
nnd verlag von Friedrich Vieweg und Sohn, 1904. 22 x 13 cm. If

In this little work Schwalbe discusses in a very able manner all the evidence that
has been accumulated, bearing on the evolutionary history of mau. His conclusions are
striking and differ in many respects from those previously in vogue. He cousiders that
in the quarternary period there existed two entirely different types of man. In the more
recent strata of this period the type, usually knowu as Neolithic mau, was practically
identical with man as he exists at. the present time ; but in the earlier strata, the type,
usually knowu as Palaeolithic man, and represented by the Neanderthal skull, was
intermediate between modern man and the ape.

When the Neanderthal skull was first discovered objections were raised by Virchow
to the view that it represented a new variety of man ; the differences which it exhibited
he considered might be in part pathological, aud in part due to the fact that it was a
single example and might represent an extreme local variation. All these objections,

[ 28 ]

1904.] MAN. [Nos. 17-18.

according to Schwalbe, have now been met ; the pathological character, if such it be.
has not influenced the other characters of the skull ; the Neanderthal skull is no longer
an isolated example of its type, since similar skulls have been found at Spy, in Belgium,
and fragments of skeletons of similar type have been found in other parts of Europe.
Moreover, a careful comparison of the dimensions of the Neanderthal skull with that of
modern man shows that the former lies far outside the known limits of variation of the
latter.

To this new type of man Schwalbe gives the name of Homo primigenius. The
greatest difference between the homo primigenius and neolithic and modern man is in the
form and capacity of the skull ; there is not so great a difference in the skeletons.
The stature of homo primigenius was equal to that of the modern middle European.
Many of the prehistoric skulls which have been referred to the Neanderthal type are,
according to Schwalbe, of the neolithic or modern type ; for example, to this latter type
he refers the skulls known as Canstatt, Egisheim, Tilbury, and Denise. He considers
that, except in the middle European region lying between the great northern ice sheet
and the glaciers of the Alps and the Pyrenees, no example of homo primigenius has
been found in any other part of the earth. The American skulls found at Calaveras
(California), Sarasota (Florida), Trenton (New Jersey), and Lansing (Kansas), all belong
to the modern variety.

Schwalbe attempts, with the help of the large amount of new evidence which has
been accumulated in recent years, to construct a genealogical tree of the descent of man.
One of the most important items of new evidence is the discovery of Pithecanthropus
erectus by Dubois. This remarkable link in the evolution of man has given rise to endless
discussion among anthropologists. Schwalbe's conclusions appear to be safe and reasonable.
The form of the skull of pithecanthropus stands much nearer to the apes than to man.
The skull capacity is much greater than that of the apes, but much less than that of
modern man. By taking casts from the skull Dubois found that Broca's speech convolution
in pithecanthropus was double the size of that of an ape, and half the size of that of man.
The femur of pithecanthropus resembles that of man more than that of the ape, and
indicates a stature of 170 cm., a stature which exceeds that of the Neanderthal man.
Seienka's study of the embryonic forms of man and those of the Gibbon and Macacus
show the close relation which exists between man and the old world apes.

The genealogical tree which Schwalbe deduces from his comprehensive study of this
question may be stated generally as follows : the American monkeys first branched off
from the main line of descent, then later in the mid-Miocene period, the old world
monkeys and the apes branched off from a common point. Further along the main line
of descent the pithecanthropus branched off, while the main line up to the early
quar ternary period was represented by the Neanderthal man. At this point neolithic or
recent man branched off, and the Neanderthal type became extinct.

This work may be commended to those who wish to obtain a fair statement and
discussion of all the latest evidence on this vexed and highly interesting question.

J. GRAY.

Totemism. Robertson-Smith.

Kinship and Marriage in Early Arabia. By the late W. Robertson-Smith. *q
New edition edited by Stanley A. Cook. London : A. & C. Black, 1903. lO
Pp. xxii + 324. 25 x 17 cm. Price 10*. 6rf.

In the nineteen years that have elapsed since the first edition of this work was
published considerable advances have been made in our knowledge of the social organisa-
tion and beliefs of primitive tribes. Not only have we added greatly to our stock of
information on such subjects as totemism, but we have made our terminology more

r 29 i

No. 18.] MAN. [1004.

accurate, aud in scientific works discarded the old vague nomenclature which did any
thing hut elucidate the subject. It is, therefore, a matter for regret that the editor
of the new edition of Kinship and Marriage should have declined to substitute for the
nomenclature of the 1888 edition — in which tribe, stock, family, clan, kin, and sub-group
were used as equivalents — a terminology more in accordance with the usage of the
present day.

The importance of the point becomes evident when we discover (page 228) that the
nation of Kalb (dog) was divided into Kalb and Thaur (ox) groups, and then again into
dog, bear, ibex, lynx, wolf, and daman sub-groups — a point which does not come out
either in the old or the new edition, the information being scattered over several pages.
The facts seem to point to a bisectiou of the Kalb tribe into dog and ox phratries. We
are not told how the clans were distributed in the phratries. It would have been a very
useful work if Mr. Cook had compiled a table showing the distribution of the clans in
the larger divisions which we have provisionally termed phratries. How far Kalb was
alone in this respect it is impossible to ascertain from the lists given by Robertson- Smith.
If it should turn out that other tribes were similarly organised the totemistic hypothesis
would, undoubtedly, be much strengthened. In this connection attention may perhaps
l>e drawn, although the case is not exactly parallel, to the traditional descent of the
Israelites from Leah (antelope) and Rachel (ewe).

While the changes in terminology suggested above might have been made without
so much as altering the form of a single sentence it is otherwise with the general
arguments of the book. As Mr. Cook remarks in the introduction, the author's own
hand is the only one which could have recast his work in the light of modern research,
and the necessary revision could only have been carried out by entirely rewriting the
work. At the same time the orientalist, no less than the anthropologist, will feel that the
republication of the work without some indication of the bearing of more recent researches
on its fundamental theories and assumptions is not entirely satisfactory. An adequate
discussion of a few even of the more doubtful points cannot be attempted here. Such a
discussion should have formed part of the book itself in the shape of an introduction or
appendices.

Since Marillier's virtually undisputed victory over Jevons {Rev. de VHist. des
Religions, XXXVI., XXXVII.) to which Mr. Cook does not refer, it can hardly be
said that totemism is universally admitted to open the way to the worship of animals.
As a matter of fact, the totem-animal as such is not worshipped ; under the influence
of ancestor worship it may come to receive a sort of cult, but how far this is from the
deification of an animal may be seen by comparing the beliefs and customs of the
Bechuanas, the Betsileos, and the Zulus, who seem to occupy three successive stages ou
the path from totemism. Among the Bantu, at any rate, the evolution of the animal-
god is very far from being exemplified, ^ot even the localisation of clans under the
influence of male descent seems to have provoked any tendency in that direction — an
important point when we remember the stress laid by Robertson-Smith ou this factor in
the evolution of the animal -gods of Arabia.

It cannot, of course, be denied that under certain circumstances the totem-animal of
a clan may come to be respected by the other clans, as among the Ovakumbe (Les Miss.
Cath., 1888, p. 262), where the totem of the clau of their chief is hououred by all his
subjects. But this is an isolated case, and we have no reason for supposing that all
the many animal deities mentioned by Robertson-Smith reached their position by a
similar process. Prima facie, only one animal in each tribe could be deified through
chiefly influence ; Robertson-Smith, however, is disposed to regard the syncretic character
of the worship at Hierapolis, for example, as the result of fusion of half-a-dozen tribal
(i.e., totem-kin) or local deities. On the whole, therefore, in the absence of analogies in
favour of this hypothesis, and in view of the many non-totemistic animal cults, the

[ 30 1

1904.] MAN. [Nos. 18-19.

assumption of Robertson-Smith seems, in the light of our present knowledge, hardly
supported by a sufficient body of evidence.

Another point on which some remarks might well have been added in an intro-
duction is the question of forbidden foods. Here, again, the author of Kinship and
Marriage was disposed to see the influence of totem ism whenever a tabu animal is
found. But the hare (p. 238) must, if we may judge by the analogy of other races,
have been tabu, not to a single kin, but to all the Semites irrespective of totemistic
divisions, just as we find a fish tabu among the Bechuana, not to speak of the numerous
Australian food tabus unconnected with totemism.

The panther {ibid.) is clearly a wer-animal, and as such tabu, and the same is
probably true of the hyena (p. 237). There may be some connection between the
fundamental ideas of totemism and 1 yea nth ropy, but we cannot use the prevalence of
the latter as a proof of the prior existence of the former class of beliefs. The Beni
Harith, we learn on p. 261, /*. 2, might not eat or drink at the hand of a woman, but
this is more readily explicable as a tabu of commensality than from any ideas connected
with totemism.

Again, Robertson -Smith assumed (p. 310, e.g.) that the sacred animals of the
mysteries and those offered piacularly bore a totemistic character. But so far as the
mysteries have analogies among other races they are analogous, not to totem kins, but to
secret societies, which may, indeed, be based on the same ideas as those that lie at the
root of totemism, but may also spring up in a state of society far removed from totemism.
So, too, with the piacular sacrifice ; the only example of totem sacrifice, if such it can be
called, among totem tribes, so far from being piacular is simply a magical ceremony
unconnected with the idea of expulsion of evils or expiation of wrong-doing. The
piacular sacrifice, where we find it among totem tribes, is, if we may take the Iroquois
as an example, of comparatively late origin and in no way specially characteristic of
totemism.

If the editor had chosen to accept it, the opportunity was a good one for a
re-discussion of the general question of Semitic totemism. It is no doubt a useful work
to republish the book before us with the author's additions and corrections, but u less
limited view of the scope of an editor's duties would have been more satisfactory to
tbo!»e who like specialist literature to be up to date. N. W. T.

Magic. Thompson.

The Devils and Evil Spirits of Babylonia. Being Incantations, translated by *f*
R. Campbell Thompson, M.A. Vol. I. London : Luzac, 1903. Pp. lxv + 211. l"
22 x 15 cm. Price 15*. net.

This volume is the fifteenth of Luzac's useful Semitic Text series, and with its
companion volume will form an annotated edition of the sixteenth and seventeenth
parts of Cuneiform Texts, including in all transliterations and translations of about
240 tablets and fragments. The redaction by the scribes of A s5 urban i pal has not,
Mr. Thompson thinks, resulted in any considerable re-writing of the spells, and he is
disposed to regard them as essentially unchanged from the Sumeriau archetype in use
six or seven thouMiud years ago.

The introduction classifies the kinds of evil spirits against which protection was
needed, of which the most important were the utukku and the ekimmu. Both these
words were used of disembodied human souls, and it does not appear whether there was
any fundamental difference between the conceptions they embodied. The utukku was
used of the ghost called from the underworld by the necromancer ; but it seems also to
have been applied to a ghost that lay in wait in desert places or graveyards. The
ekimmu was also a restless spirit, the soul of someone whose remains were unburied or

[ 31 ]

Nos. 19-20.] MAN. [1904.

who did not receive from the living those offerings aud libations which, with the dust
and mud of the nether world, formed the nutriment of the departed. In the one case
the ghost never reached the " House of Darkness," in the other hunger and thirst
forced it to leave its abode in Ekurra and seek on earth the food and drink which its
descendants should by rights have transmitted from the upper world. A second reason
for its return to earth was that it was entitled to fasten on auyoue who had l>een in some
way connected with it iu this life, and demand from them the rites that would give it
peace. The chance sharing of food, the mere act of drinking together, was, we leuru,
enough to confer this right. Probably hospitality was more honoured in the breach
than in the observance in Babylonia.

Another species of demon was the alu, which was supposed to hide in dark corners
and, like spirits iu general, to haunt deserted buildings. Another side of its activities
brings it into close connection with the nightmare ; it was supposed to steal sleep from
tired eyes by standing at the l>edside ready to pounce on the uufortunate who veutured
to yield to his weariness. It was only half human, sometimes without mouth, ears, or
limbs, the offspring, perhaps, of a human being and a ghoulish lilitu.

None of these spirits seem to have been able or willing to do man a serious injury.
There were, however, others whose fuuetion it was, like Ura, the plague-spirit, and
Ashakku, the fever-spirit, to disseminate disease. Others, again, like the ghost of a
woman who died in childbirth, were probably regarded as draining men of their life-
blood. The langsuyar, to which Mr. Thompson refers as a parallel, is certainly feared,
not because she returns to fetch her child, but because of her vampyrish propensities.
At the same time the idea that the child would recall the mother to earth may be the
foundation of this belief. The not infrequent custom of killiug nursliugs after the death
of the mother may well have superstitious as well as practical grounds.

As an interesting parallel to a well-kuown European type of spell may be noted the
Sumerian practice of repeating in the magical verses long traditional stories of the doings
of their gods. Perhaps, in the toothache and other spelts, in which Christ aud the
Apostles figure largely, they have been substituted for the deposed deities of au earlier
age. " N. VV r . T.

Folklore. Kaufmann : Smith.

Northern Mythology. Ry Friedrich Kaufmanu. Translated by M. Steele f%#%
Smith. The i'emple Primers. London: J. M. Dent, 1903. Pp. xii + 106. ZU
15 x 10 cm. Price 1*.

This little volume fully sustains the reputation already won by the admirable series
of which it forms a part. A translation of Professor Kaufman u's Deutsche Mythologie
forms an excellent introduction to the study of Germanic mythology. For the benefit of
those who may not be acquainted with the primer iu its original form, a brief summary
will, perhaps, uot be out of place. After dealing with the decline of Paganism — a brief
but extremely lucid account of the introduction of Christianity among the Pagan tribes
of Northern Europe bringing out clearly the tolerance of the early missionaries, which
contributed so largely to the preservation, though often in a mutilated form, of the pre-
Christian mythology — and the attributes of the gods generally, the author proceeds to
give a brief account of the attributes of Woden, Thor, and Tiw, summarising the chief
legends iu which they appear. Then follows a short account of the minor gods and the
goddesses, the early northern cosmogony forming the conclusion. The work of trans-
lation has- been exceedingly well done, but if wo may venture on one criticism, although
the translator contends quite justly that her title indicates the scope of the primer more
adequately, it is, perhaps, a pity that the title of the original work has not been preserved
in the translation. E. N. F.

Printed by Kybe asd Spottiswoode, His Majesty's Printers, East Harding Street, B.C.

err ■

Pi ATE C.

Man, tgc>4

KlG. 2.

Fig. 3*

/*■•

Fig, 4,
DRAWINGS BY NATIVES OF BRITISH NEW GUINEA.

1904.]

MAN.

[No. 31.

ORIGINAL ARTICLES.
New Guinea : Native Drawings. With Plate C. Haddon.

Drawings by Natives of British New Guinea. By A. C. Haddon, f%*

Sc.D.,F.R.S. C\

As drawings by uncultured peoples possess considerable interest, some of my
colleagues and myself obtained several examples from Papuans in 1898. Figs. 1-21
were obtained at Bulaa (Hula), lligo district, British New Guinea. Mr. Ray asked oue
or two boys to draw a man (a), dog (b), crocodile (c), turtle (d), fish (e), house (f)»
and a paddle (<;). These boys were about twelve years of age.

The least realistic efforts were made by a boy named Pokana (Figs. 1-7). Fig. 6
was intended for a turtle.

Fig. 1.

Fio. 2.

Fig. 3 (a).

Those of Igapapa (Figs. 8-11) are not much better.

Another boy was more ambitious, and put some shading into his figures
(Figs. 12-13).

Kila-pai drew Figs. 14-18 and Gimaili Figs. 19-21.

All these drawings exhibit a very rudimentary power of delineation, and they
correspond very closely with the drawings by members of the Bororo and of other
central Brazilian tribes figured iu Chupter X. of Karl von den Steinen's Unter den
Naturvolkern Zentral-Hrasilicns (1894). Indeed, they are similar to many other
drawings of nature-folk, and those of our own children. If these drawings are compared
with those figured in Vol. V. of the Reports of the Cambridge Anthropological Expedi-
tion to Torres Straits (1904), it will be seen that the Torres Straits Islanders are more
skilful as a whole than the Bulaa lads. It is true that most of the former have
passed through mission school; 1 , but they were not taught drawing there, although
naturally they have seen very numerous pictures of European origin. The Torres
Straits Islanders, we know, were accustomed to delineate men, animals and other
natural objects on drums, baml>oo tobacco-pipes and pearl shells before they had
come under missionary influence. They were also skilful carvers iu wood, as can be
seen from specimens iu the British Museum and iu other museums, and they showed

[ 33 ]

No. aj

MAN.

[1904.

considerable ingenuity in the construction of masks. We found that they readily
responded to a request for drawings, and they generally managed to represent the salient
points of the object or scene. I have previously suggested that " it was on account of
44 the people being in the habit of representing their totem animals that they extended

Fig. 4 (a).

Fig. 6 (d).

Fig. 7 (g).

" the practice to other forms which were familiar objects about them, or which attracted
" their attention as being strange or remarkable." (The Decorative Art of British New
Guinea. Cunningham Memoir. Royal Irish Academy, 1894, p. 23.)

J u

Fig. 8 (a).

Fig. 9 (d).

Fig. 10 (e). Fig. 11 (g).

The Bulaa are a people of the Motu stock. Mr. Ray and I have shown that this
stock is Melanesian in origin (loc. cit. 253-269, and Proc. Roy. Irish Acad. (3) ii.,
1893, pp. 509-17), as opposed to natives to the west, who are true Papuans. In the

[ 34 1

1004.]

MAN.

[No. 21.

memoir attention was drawn to the monotony of ideas in the decorative art of this
Motu stock, and the remarkable absence of delineation of the human or of animal
forms. So far as our limited knowledge extends these people are no longer totemic,
and their religious ideas seem to be of the most rudimentary character. The explana-
tion of this barrenness appears to be that neither totemism on the one hand nor religion
on the other has had that energising influence upon the decorative and pictorial art of
the people that is manifested in most other places.

It must not be supposed that these people are incapable of making more accurate and
artistic drawings. It is probable that they could easily be educated up to a higher

Fig. 13 (b). Fig. 14 (c).

Fig. 17 (p).

Fig. 18
(a).

t— if*

Fig. 19 (b).

-tr

Fig. 12 (a).

Fig. 20 (c). Fig. 21 (p).

standard of excellence. At all eveuts the drawings of Aluia, a young man, twenty- three
years of age, who had been educated in the mission school at Port Moresby, show a
great advance in skill, which probably is not entirely due to greater age. It is true he
was a member of the Koita (Koitapu) tribe, which is of a "Papuan" and not of a
"Melanesian" stock, but the general culture of the Koita and Motu is practically
the same. In his drawing of one of the pile-dwellings, characteristic of the district
(Plate C, Fig. 1), he has shown the two ends as well as the side of the house, aud the
front platform is shown partly in elevation and partly in plan. The warriors (Plate C,
Figs. 2, 3) carry very inadequate shields (kesi), aud one in each drawing holds in his
mouth the war-charm (musiknka) ; in Figs. 2, 3 some men wear feather oruaments in
their hair, and two men in Fig. 2 carry stone-headed clubs. The lagoon (Plate C,
Fig. 4) is near Port Moresby, and parties of white men are occasionally made up to
visit it for the purpose of shooting wild-fowl. Aluia has depicted such a scene. The

l 35 ]

K<k21.]

MAN.

[1904.

hills round the lagoon are drawn from the point of view of a person in the centre of the
lagoon, who is looking around, and is, in fact, an annular panorama ; the rushing of the
ducks through the water is cleverly drawn. The effect of the original drawing is con-
siderably lost in the reproduction, as is also the case for the drawings of the warriors.

In a dozen drawings of steamers and ships by Misi, a native of Port Moresby, the
sea is not once indicated, although the whole hull is visible (Fig. 22). He also drew

Fig. 23.

Fig. 24.

a side view of the kind of house in which Europeans reside in New Guinea, without
however, showing the gable ends.

A European is fairly well drawn by Misi in Fig. 23, but the man on horseback
(Fig. 24) is decidedly poor.

Figs. 1-21 are of the same size as the originals, Fig. 23 is reduced by one third, and
Figs. 22 and 24 are reduced by one half. In Plate C, Figs. 1 and 4 are reduced by
one-half, and Figs. 2 and 3 by one-third. A. C. HADDON.

[ 36 1

1904.] MAN. [No. 22.

Prance : Painted Pebbles. Lang.

The Problem of the Painted Pebbles of Mas d'Azii. By Andrew t\t%

Lang. LL

In IS Anthropologic for November there appears an interesting article by Mr. Arthur
Bernard Cook on the painted pebbles of Mas d'Azii. As is well known, these relics of
early neolithic or mesolithic culture are painted, some with dots, varying in number ;
some with transverse strokes ; some with very conventionalised designs (perhaps) of
trees, serpents, or plants ; and some with about fourteen arbitrary characters resembling
letters, or the signs of the prehistoric Mediterranean Signary, familiar from the recent
discoveries of Mr. Arthur Evans and Mr. Flinders Petrie. M. Piette, the discoverer of
the pebbles, argues that some of them with dots were used in calculations, and that
even if they were markers in a game they still imply calculation, scoring in each case so
many points. In the same number of V 'Anthropologic he reinforces this theory, and, as
is well known, he regards the pebbles with alphabetiform marks as in some way
connected with the very early Cretan, Mge&u, and other Mediterranean characters on
ancient seals, pots, and other objects.

Mr. Cook replies that " we cannot compare two sets of simple combinations of lines
" without observing many cases of purely accidental coincidence," and alphabets are
simple combinations of lines. It seems to me that many marks in Mr. Pe trie's
" Mediterranean Signary" may be found almost anywhere in the pictographs and
petroglyphs inscribed by savage or barbaric races. For example, in the Report of the
Bureau of Ethnology for 1888-89 is Colonel Mallery's valuable work on such inscrip-
tions. Whoever looks at the plates illustrating the petroglyphs in Owen's Valley,
California (pages 56-61), will see much to remind him of Mr. Petrie's signs on
Egyptian pottery of circa 5000 B.C. onwards, in Volume I. of Royal Tombs. Mingled
with obvious conventionalisings of animal and human figures, in the American rock
graffiti, are signs, apparently arbitrary, which have their representatives in archaic
Greek, Iberian, Phoenician, and Runic alphabets, and also among the painted pebbles
of Mas d'Azii. Anyone who knows the archaic alphabets and the Signary can pick out
at least thirteen signs common to these and to the Californian petroglyphs. The signs in
these Californian cases cannot, as a rule, be certainly recognised as conventional debase
ments of representations of objects, but they are isolated in each case, and do not, as
in Crete, Egypt, and elsewhere, recur in fixed combinations. They are, therefore, not
early letters or elements in an early syllabary, though, to judge from the case of the
inscriptions of Oakley Wells (Report, page 329), they may be totem marks inscribed by
Indians. These marks at Oakley Wells occasionally represent merely a part of, or the
track of, the totem animals, and are in three or four cases at Oakley Wells accidentally
alphabetic in form. In other cases also where the form is alphabetic the origin mag be
totemistic, though the meaning cannot be interpreted, as it was at Oakley Wells, by an
Oraibe chief, the last of the Raincioud totems. It is not inconceivable that some signs
in the Mediterranean Signary may once have been totem marks ; the three-pronged \f/
may have represented the track of a bird (as in American and Australian rock paintings
or petroglyphs) ; but all this is mere conjecture in the case of the Mediterranean signs,
which clearly had some meaning as characters, perhaps syllabic.

Mr. Cook's suggestion is that the painted pebbles of Mas d'Azii may have
corresponded to the painted or incised stones of the Arunta, called Churinga, or " sacred
things," and interpreted in accordance with the peculiar totemistic and animistic ideas
of the Central Australians. He shows that there is an example of a French palaeolithic
pendelor/ue in bone or ivory, which in shape, serrated edges, and decoration (concentric
circles) is exactly akin to some Australian bullroarers.

Another, from a Moravian site, is figured in Hoernes's Der Diluviale Mensch, p. 138
(1903). Dr. Hcernes does not remark on the thoroughly Australian appearance of

[ 37 ]

No. 22.] MAN. [1904.

this object. It may be inferred from these examples and from others in amber from the
Baltic coasts, published by Klebs, that palaeolithic and neolithic men had bullroarers,
and probably had such religious ideas as among savages are attached to bullroarers,
as uttering the Voice (or *' Word ") of some supernormal being.

But when Mr. Cook argues tbat the site of Mas d'Azil may have been a kind of
storehouse of "sacred things" {Churinga) like the Ertnatulunga of the Arunta, it
seems to me that difficulties arise.

To take but a small objection, perhaps, three of the brochs on Sir J. Barry's
estate, in Sutherland, yielded a store of painted pebbles curiously aualogous to those of
Mas d'Azil. A description, with photographs, is in Dr. Joseph Anderson's article on
Brochs {Proceedings of the Society of Scottish Antiquaries, 1900-1901). It can hardly
be denied, I think, that, taken as a whole, the broch-painted pebbles are much more akin
to those of Mas d'Azil than are the Arunta churinga as far as we know them at present.
Yet the brochs — ingenious, concentric towers built of stone without mortar — represent a
stage of culture infinitely above that of Mas d'Azil, which again is far above that of the
Arunta. Religious or quasi-religious ideas and customs may survive indefinitely, but it
is not very probable that the broch folk of 200 a.d. at earliest kept sacred storehouses
of churinga. To all appearance the brochs may have been built first in the third or
fourth centuries of our era, in a late chalkosideric age. Yet they show Asylian
painted pebbles, whereas Arunta churiuga seem, as a rule, to be fashioned stones with
incised — not painted — decorations, and the pebbles of Mas d'Azil are all painted, as are
those of the brochs. The patterns on the broch pebbles are usually dots of colour,
though lineal designs do occur. The inference, roughly speaking, appears to be that
as painted pebbles occur in three very different stages of culture — Arunta, Mas d'Azil,
and early Scotch (or Pictish) — they may in each case have had three very different
purposes, and it would be indiscreet to argue from the Arunta purpose, which is known,
to the unknown purposes of Mas d'Azil and Caithness.

It is next to be observed tbat neither the site of Mas d'Azil nor the brochs of
Caithness, which yield painted pebbles, answers to the Ertnatulunga, or sacred store-
houses of the Australians. In these Ertnatulunga they keep their sacred things, which
sometimes (apparently but seldom) are small painted stones, of which only one figured
by Messrs. Spencer and Gilleu resembles the pebble of Mas d'Azil. It is a churinga
of the Hakea tree totem of the Arunta (Speucer aud Gillen, Figure 21, page 5). The
resemblance in this case is very close, but the Australian painted stone is of a kind
apparently rare among churinga. Most churinga bear concentric circles and half circles,
horseshoes, and interconnecting lines incised on stone or wood. The sacred storehouse
in Australia is " a small cave or crevice ; " the entrance is " carefully blocked up with
stones ; " the surrounding region is holy, and a sanctuary for wild animals. On the
other hand, the shelter of Mas d'Azil was a place of human habitation, as is proved by
the remains of food, bones, plumstones, and other objects, while the brochs which yield
painted pebbles were mere uormal dwelling-places. It seems to follow that Mas d'Azil
was no sacred storehouse of mesolithic churinga any more than the brochs were, and
when this is recognised we seem to see little reason for supposiug that the paiuted
pebbles of Mas d'Azil were religions objects. Iu Australia a few painted stones and
many incised fashioned stones are sacred things, or churinga, and are kept in bundles in
sacred caves and crevices. It obviously does not follow that the painted stones so
numerous and so variously marked in a mesolithic or early neolithic place of habitation
were sacred things or totemistic things. As good a guess as any is that some, at least,
of the Mas d'Azil pebbles, and perhaps of the broch pebbles, were used, like the coloured
stones in the Mexican game of patolli % " to decide the values in a game by the several
" designs, and by the pebbles falliug on the coloured or unmarked side " {Report, ut
supra, page 550). Pebbles with stripes or spots might be, like cards or dice, of various

t 38 ]

1904.] MAN. [Nos. 22-24.

values ; pebbles with other designs might answer to u court cards." Savages are no
less addicted to gambling than to superstition. But the cards with spots may also have
been used in calculations ; the " court cards " may have represented conventionalised
totemistic designs or other designs. In fact, all is matter of conjecture, and though it
would be most interesting to find churinga of the Arunta sort at Mas d'Azil, as it is
interesting to find palaeolithic pendeloques of the bullroarer pattern, the evidence rather
makes against the sacred and in favour of the sportive character of the Mas d'Azil
painted pebbles. ANDREW LANG.

England : Archaeology. Lewis.

The Ooldrum Monument. By A. L. Lewis, F.C.A. (cf. Man, 1904. 12). qq
From a letter which appeared in the Building News about thirty years ago £0
it would seem that this monument was first discovered by the Rev. Mark Noble about
eighty years ago, and re-discovered by the Rev. L. B. Larking, Vicar of Ryarsh, and
that the first printed notice of it was by Mr. Douglas Allport in a little book called
Bound About Kit's Coty House, Mr. Clinch (Man, 1904. 12) mentions three other
printed notices. I myself published a description of it iu Anthropologia in 1874, with
a two-page plan on a scale of 15 feet to 1 inch. In that plan I endeavoured to show
that the stones to the west of the chamber might have formed a separate circle, but I
willingly admit that, when looking at a plan, it seems more probable that there was an
oblong enclosure round the chamber. On the ground itself, however, the great difference
of level seems to place some difficulty iu the way, but there may have been more
interference with the natural surface than I had allowed for. I must further admit
that, like the other writers Mr. Clinch mentions, I did not discover any unusual
regularity in the form of the stones or any resemblances to Stonehenge, nor do I
perceive them even now that Mr. Clinch has pointed them out. When I first visited
Coldrum in 1869 I was told that a skull had been dug up in or near the chamber, and
that the collective wisdom of the locality had decided that it was that of a gipsy, but I
could not find out what had become of it.

Kit's Coty Hon se, as it now is, could hardly have been a sepulchral chamber, but
it has been suggested that the stones now remaining are only the end of a large chamber,
which most likely had a gallery leading to it and a tumulus covering both. There is,
however, no evidence that anything of the kind ever existed ; the monument has an
appearance of completeness about it, and was most likely a " cove," or shrine, like
those at Avebury, Arborlow, and Stanton Drew, but with the addition of a covering
Atone. Similar open-sided megalithic shrines are found in use in India, where, I think,
they are always covered at the top. A. L. LEWIS.

REVIEWS.
Prehistoric Swords. Naue.

Die Vorrbmischcn Schwerter aus Kupfer, Bronze und Eisen. Von Dr. Julius f\m
Naue. With album of 45 plates. Munich : Piloty and Loehle, 1903. Lrw

Twenty years have passed since Dr. Naue published his preliminary work on
prehistoric swords of which the present volume represents something more thau an
amplification. The work is of that thorough-going and careful kind that we are
accustomed to from Dr. Naue, and is most fully illustrated by an album of 45 plates
containing reproductions of drawings from the author's hand. The comparative material
embraces the whole European and East Mediterranean area and is the fruit of most
comprehensive studies.

It would be impossible without an abundance of illustrations to do justice to a work
of this kind. It must be sufficient on this occasion to refer very briefly to Dr. Naue's
views regarding the original sources of the earliest European sword types.

[ 39 ]

No. 24.] MAN. [1904.

These are represented according to the author's classification by two principal
types— I. and II. The antecedent form of Type I. is here found in the copper daggers
of Cyprus with their hooked tang, the blades of which, with their lozenge-shaped section,
suggest comparisons with the very early Egyptian dagger from Naqada. .This type of
dagger in Cyprus itself was gradually elongated into a sword of the same form.
Dr. Naue describes a fine specimen of such a sword found in a grave of the early
cemetery of Psemmatismeno, accompanied by a copper chisel and the usual red-faced
pottery with rude reliefs of animals. These associations sufficiently attest its early date,
but it is necessary to observe that the " Babylonian " cone-seal of agate figured with the
other objects in Plate II. of the album, and said to have been found with them, belongs to
a later historic stratum. It is, in fact, an Assyrian cone of an usual type exhibiting a
crescent-topped pillar above an altar, and cannot be earlier than the eighth century B.C.

In the early Cypriote daggers, with their hooked tangs, Dr. Naue finds the proto-
type of the magnificent bronze swords found in the shaft- graves of Mycenae, Types I.b and c,
according to this classification. But this comparison, which at best must be considered
remote, suggests great difficulties. The culture first revealed by the shaft-graves at
Mycenae is, as we now know, more or less exotic in mainland Greece, and its finest pro-
ducts must be probably regarded as importations from Mindan Crete. Several recent
finds in the nekropolis of Phsestos, in a tomb at Knossos, and again more recently in a
beehive tomb at Mu liana in East Crete, show that these so-called " Mycenaean " sword
types are at home in Crete, and are in reality " Min6an." The Cretan finds referred to,
and which help to date the shaft-graves at Mycenae, are contemporary with the second
period of the later Palace at Knossos, and according to the newest data may now be
approximately dated between 1800 and 1.500 B.C.

But the culture displayed by this latest Palace period at Knossos is itself the direct
outgrowth of a still earlier Mindan civilisation, reaching back stage by stage with succes-
sive evidences of contact with Egypt under the XVth, Xlllth, Xllth, Vllth, Vlth,
and even the IVth Dynasties. There is no evidence of any real break in the continuous
evolution of this great Mindan civilisation, and though, owing to the scarcity of metal
objects as yet found belonging to its earlier periods, the evidence is as yet incomplete,
every presumption is in favour of the view that the " Late Mindan " sword type was
the direct descendant of u Early Mindan " daggers. Of " Early Mindan " relations with
Cyprus we have as yet no indication. With Egypt, ou the other hand, the connection
was already intimate by the middle of the Fourth Millennium before our era.

A supplementary note to Dr. Naue's work (pp. 92, 93) coutains a curious piece of
evidence, with which I was able to supply him, regarding the sword types in vogue during
the latest Palace period in Knossos, which it is now clear cannot be safely brought down
below the close of the sixteenth century B.C. This evidence is supplied by the discovery
of a certain number of clay inventories referring to swords. On these tablets, besides
the inscriptions aud the numbers, actual pictures of swords are given, belonging to two
types— one with elongated triangular blades answering to those of the shaft-graves of
Mycenae, the other with blades with more parallel edges, and in some cases suggestive of
the leaf-shaped North aud West European types. Allowing for the simplification of
outline natural to such conventional pictography, it certainly looks as if in the case of
this latter type we had to do with swords analogous to the more exotic form fouud at
Mycenae in the Cyclopean House, aud included by Dr. Naue under his Type II. In
the early representatives of this class the blade, though otherwise straight, curves slightly
in immediately below the handle, and this feature is clearly reproduced by the Knossian
scribe, though he has given the whole a more leaf -shaped outline than was perhaps
warranted.

If this view is right, we have here the evidence of the introduction of what certainly
does seem to be a uon-^Egean form as early as the sixteenth century B.C.

[ « ]

W04.] MAN. [Nos. 24-25.

The swords of Type II., illustrated in Greece by the example from the Cyclopean
House at Mycenae, must in Dr. Naue's mature opinion be regarded as of Italian origin.
It is certain that they are most abundantly illustrated by a fine series of examples from
Sulmona, Lake Trasimene, and other sites in Central and Lower Italy, extending from
Etruria to Apulia. From Italy it seems to have spread to various parts of the Balkan
Peninsula, to Hungary, Austria, North and South Germany, and thence to Scandinavia.
The leaf-shaped form is its natural outgrowth, and its off-shoots extend to the British
Isles. As I pointed out in the Journ. Anthr. Inst, XXX., pp. 218, 219, this western
and northern type of bronze sword really supplies the prototype of the early iron sworda
found at Curium and Marion in Cyprus. It is gratifying to find that Dr. Naue now
rejects the view originally accepted by him that these Cypriote iron swords were of
Phoenician origin, and that he recognises their affiliation to the great western and
northern family. ARTHUR J. EVANS.

Moravia : Archaeology. KM2.

Beitrdge ziir Kenntnis der Quartarzeit in Mdhren. Von Dr. Martin Erif. f%r
Mit 180 Ulustrationen. Steinitz : 1903. 23 X 16 cm. ZD

Dr. Krig's investigations, continued for many years, have been conducted with the
minutest care and patience, and rewarded with remarkable discoveries. Broadly speaking,
they fall into two classes ; some researches have been conducted in open sections, others
in caverns in the Devonian Limestones. In each case the result has been similar in
general conclusions, such as are touched on in this article. The first series described —
nearly half of the book — comes from a section of great interest. In our own country we
have of late years become familiar with implement -bearing sections, which lie on water-
partings, and not within the basins of existing rivers, such as the sections at Savernake,.
between the sources of the Salisbury Avon and the Kennet. Dr. Kri2 has found a section
of this character at Predmost in Moravia, on a portion of the central water parting of
Europe, where the Becwa flows southwards to join the march to the Danube, and the
Oder northwards to the Baltic Sea. The soil of the position is formed by a deep bed of
loess, a kind of loam which partly owes its origin to rain-wash and river-floods, but is in
largest measure deposited by the wind. In this bed Dr. Kri2 dug fifty-five pits, carefully
marking the contents of each. The general section has four divisions ; the lowest is
pre-glacial, which is decided by animal remains ; there are no relics or tools of man ; the
second is glacial, and is crowded with glacial animals and with relics and tools of man ;
the third is post-glacial, and contains human relics ; then there is a persistent interval,
usually a metre of loess, above which lie neolithic tools, sepultures, and remains of
domestic animals. Southward in the Alps, northwards in Germany and Britain, inter-
glacial divisions of the Diluvium play an important part. In Moravia certain strips of
vegetable remains leave faint traces of a possible interglacial period, but are believed by
Dr. Kriz to be local rather than general phenomena. He believes that for Moravia there
are no more than three divisions of the quaternary deposits — pre-glacial without man ;
glacial with man ; post-glacial with man and animals of the steppes.

His theory is that man entered from the north. In the circum polar regions his
faculties had been brought forth, and he was far removed from the fruit-eating semi-
arboreal man who may have flourished in more genial climates. The cold had taught him
to procure fire, and to find defence in clothes. To gain fur and food he had learned to
hunt, which called forth his courage, his observation, his cunning, and inventions. He
was armed with the lance and bow,jas well as with the knife and axe. Clothing had led
to the invention of the needle, and the thread of thong or gut, and leather was tanned
and polished with flattened bone ; the beginnings, the author thinks, of the distinction of
women and of the life of the home.

[ 41 ]

No. 3d.] MAN. [1904.

The implements and works of art found in this situation are peculiar. The
character of stone implements found does not seem to be that with which we are
familiar in English quaternary deposits. They are divided by the author into knives
or flakes; scrapers (Schaber), defined as "flat pieces with a sharp edge"; axes
defined as " similar to the Schaber, with stronger and more massive back, capable of
being fastened in wood " ; lance points, arrow points, nuclei, and splinters or spalls.
Among the many illustrations given there is nothing that resembles the pointed or oval
instrument so common in England, or, indeed, any of the type-implements of Sir John
Evans. A hasty judgment would infer that the tools would not date from what we call
Palaeolithic time. In view of the animals, mammoth, cave-bear, cave lion, and others
with which the relics are found, such a conclusion is absolutely untenable.

We have said that Dr. Kri2's finds are of two classes. The second class comes from
caverns, of which he has explored many with the systematic care which characterises
all his work. He describes the stone-implements there found (p. 431) as the " ordinary,
familiar, flaked (zagehauen) implements of flint, hornstone, chalcedony, and quartz." The
quartz axe, however, given as an illustration, is not flaked on both sides, but is rather
what we should call a trimmed flake, and far from any type-implement of quaternary
time known to us. Again, apparently in describing the finds both from open sections
and from caverns as a whole, the writer says : — u The various forms of flint-tools,
44 Chelleen, Acheuleen, Solutreen, Magdalcnien, are found throughout, so that the
44 particular forms cannot be united with any single horizon (p. 534)." We are not
ourselves satisfied that the usual forms do appear. The prevalence of shapely flakes,
large and small, and of small nuclei, is not to our kuowledge paralleled from English
quaternary deposits. It is unsafe to hazard conjectures without having seen the actual
objects on which conclusions must be based, but the impression left on our mind is that
Chelleen and Acheuleen men were absent from Moravia.

Perhaps the most remarkable of Dr. Kriz"s finds are various carved objects. Among
them is a mammoth rib decorated with about forty indented lines in a herring-bone
pattern. On a portion of one side the pattern is altered by making one set of lines at
right angles to another, and in one set the lines are chiefly parallel to each other. More
remarkable is an ivory amulet (Anhtingsel), if such it was, four inches in length, covered
partly with parallel lines and partly with three sets of concentric ovals. The ornamenta-
tion is only on one side. Similar concentric ovals occur in auother very peculiar carving,
worked on a fragment of mammoth tusk, which we do not pretend to decipher, but
agree with the author in thinking that part of it represents the pattern of a portion of a
woman's dress. With these should be named a fragment of bone from the Kulna cavern
marked with thirty-nine parallel scratches nearly at right angles to the edges. It bears
an extraordinary resemblance to a message stick of the Australian aborigines. The
interest of these carvings to our mind overshadows that of other engraved work found
in the caverns. As a whole the designs are decorative rather than imitative, which
in itself places them on a level of their own, when compared with the carvings of
Southern France.

In the open section at Predmost Dr. Kri£ was fortunate enough to find a human
skull in good preservation, but without the lower jaw. It belonged to a young man. In
this, as in so many other of its revelations, the quaternary of Moravia has an independent
position. The skull is very far removed from the Neanderthal or Spy type ; the super-
ciliary ridge is not developed, and the frontal bone is but slightly depressed ; in most of
its measurements it corresponds to a modern skull.

We have touched but slightly on some of the chief results of numerous and thorough
investigations. To treat of the various animals of which Dr. Kriz has collected the bones,
and of the life-labour which he has given to be able to collate them accurately with
the skeletons of their existing representatives, a further article would be required.

[ 42 ]

1904.] MAN. [Nos. 25-26.

We Lave said enough to show that primeval man in Moravia arises under some
peculiar circumstances and possesses some peculiar attributes. The interglacial divisions of
-southern and northern Germany cannot be distinguished, nor yet the divisions of Southern
France ; the implements alike of stone and of bone have some peculiar forme, but the great
facts are prominent. First there is a time when the Mammoth was present, but not
Man ; then Man appears, and like Pallas, in full armour. He has skilfully made
weapons of bone and stone for the chase ; his home is warmed by the fire on his hearth ;
his dress is of skin.-*, carefully prepared and sewn together. He is painted, either to
attain an ideal of beauty or to strike terror in enemies ; his body is adorned with
carved fragments of ivory, and his artistic taste finds impressions in grotesque imitations
•of the human form, and the patterns of its clothing. Then there is a break in the series,
and Primeval Man has disappeared. With much that surprises us from its dissimilarity
to our own records, perhaps the similarity in the break between Palaeolithic and Neolithic
is more surprising still. In the low watershed of Europe, hardly touched by the
greatest expansion of northern ice, a continuity between the old and the new might
have been expected, but is not found. Dr. Kriz's pages add an integral portion to our
knowledge of the history of early man in Europe ; many of his facts are for the first
time brought to light ; his conclusions are striking, and always deserving of considera-
tion ; and his works will, wa believe, find a place on the shelves of all students of the
-early history of mankind. A. M. BELL.

Scotland : Place-Names. Johnston.

Place -Names of Scotland. By James B. Johnston, B.D. 2nd ed. Edinburgh : aa
David Douglas, 1903. Pp. cxi + 308. 18 x 12 cm. Price 6*. iX)

This volume is the second edition of a work that appeared in 1892, and is now
enlarged by about fifty pages. The introduction is pretentious. The author speaks
disdainfully of his predecessors in the same field, and assures the reader that "this
" study will be no dilettante trifling." Yet the whole style and tone of the introduction,
its asides, its appeals to the gallery, and the jejeune, partly inaccurate introduction to
the study of Gaelic, betray the hand of the amateur. What is known to Irish gram-
marians as " aspiration " is treated in a single loosely -worded sentence which might
give rise to an erroneous view of its nature and cause. Further on we are told more
than once that the Gael ** almost always " aspirates his s. Here the term "aspirate" is
used in a new and erroneous sense, for on these occasions the author means that the
Gaelic spirant s is pronounced "almost always" like an English sh. This loose
terminology is due to the accident that a Gaelic $ when aspirated is now written sh
(though with the sound of h\ and has therefore the same form as the English spirant sh.
At page xliv the reader is led to believe that the genitive of the definite article is repre-
sented by the feminine na, no notice being taken of the masculine. After stating that
u with masculine uouns beginning with a vowel the article is an € or /'," he goes on to
say in a fresh senteoce, " The same is true of feminine nouns beginning with $ ; here
the / eclipses the *, as iu . . . . caol an € snaimh and cinn fsaile" The reader
will naturally infer that snaimh and saile are nominatives feminine ; in reality they are
genitives masculine. The same carelessness is observable through the whole volume.
The author seems never to correct his proofs. In the alphabetical list of place-names
forming the bulk of the volume he gives what he conceives to be the Gaelic form of the
name if it is of Gaelic origin. The list contains many uncorrected mistakes, such as
wrong genders, aspirating nouns in the genitive after na 9 omitting to aspirate the
genitive of masculine nouns after an, a, when this ought to be done. For instance, Aber
a choille for na coille ; Barr na choille for na coille ; A I It na bhealaich for a bhealaich ;
Ath nUnnis for na h-innse ; Ath na fheidh for anfheidh ; Achadh na cairn for a chairn ;

[ 43 ]

Nos. 26-27.] MAN. [1904.

Bail na chath for a chatha ; Beinn na buird for a bhuird ; Both ceannair for ceannaire ;
Cul a chudninn for na cudainne, &c. &c.

Another form of carelessness is taking a name in the genitive from some old
document and allowing the reader to suppose it is a nominative. For instance, Ego t
pette, Doiradeilinn, Ruim, Glut vein, are all in the genitive. When citing a name taken
from a chronicle, it is uncritical and misleading to date the form of the name by the year
under which the name is found iustead of by the date of the manuscript. Yet this is the
invariable practice of the author. At every page explanations of old place-names are
proposed, which show that in Celtic philology he stands on the same stage as the
predecessors he affects to despise. Where he hits the mark it is because it would be
impossible to avoid it, or because he has been aided by others ; left to himself his
guesses are most unfortunate. The simplest explanations often escape him. Menstrie
is no doubt contracted from mainistrech, " belonging to a monastery," but the author
suggests a highly improbable meith or meinach sralha, " rich, sappy, fertile, strath."
Ardnamurchan is explained by aird na mor chinn, " height over the great headland."
The gender of the article is wrong, and the simpler explanation is ard na murdhuchan,
" height of the mermaid."

The best parts of the book are where the older forms of the place-names are given.
And the author might still do good work by publishing all place-names that appear in old
documents as completely as possible with the dates adjusted to the date of the document.
But he ought to eschew attempting to explain them, for the present volume shows that
that would be raising a ricketty structure on a foundation of sand. J. A.

Italy. Pigorini.

Le piu antiche civilta deW Italia. By Luigi Pigorini, being a lecture delivered gvy
before the King and Queen of Italy and the Royal Academy of the Lincei, £f
June 7, 1903. Reprinted in the Bullettino di palctnologia italiana. Anno XXIX.
Nos. 10-12. Rome, 1903. 29 x 21 cm.

In this lecture the doyen of Italian archaeologists describes the unwritten history of
his country as revealed by the excavations of the last forty years. Much that is
contained in it will not be new to readers of the Bullettino di paletnologia italiana
whom Signor Pigorini has already familiarised with his general views, especially in regard
to the lerremare, of which he and Strobel were the first discoverers. The clear and
succinct review of the whole subject, however, as it is here presented by the distinguished
director of the Prehistoric Museum of Rome, will be of the greatest value iu enabling
students to obtain a connected idea of the early history and relations of Italy. A brief
epitome of the lecture may be given in these pages.

The first traces of man in the peninsula date from the quaternary period. The
islands and the western slopes of the Apennines were still uutroddeu, but in Umbria
and Basilicata nomads armed with palaeolithic weapons of " Chellean " type hunted the
elephant and the hippopotamus. Before the elephaut had become extinct a second group
of families had appeared using a different type of stone implement (" the Mousterian ")
and living in caves — unlike their predecessors, who had no shelter from the sky. Their
arrival coincides with the earliest settlement of western Italy and of Sicily. With such
savages, whose level of culture may be aptly compared to that of the recently extiuct
Tasmanians, begins the history of Italy, arid it is curious to note that down to the last
days of the Roman republic palaeolithic man maintained his ancient habits of life in the
remote Veronese mountains. To immigration is ascribed the first great change implied
in the sudden appearance of a neolithic civilisation vastly superior to anything earlier.
The new epoch is revealed by those remains of villages of circular huts which dot the
plains of Lombardy : the dwellings of a pastoral people, who also established themselves
in the hills, where they lived in caves that sometimes served also for the burial of their

[ 44 ]

1904.] MAN. [ffo. 27.

dead. Whenever it was possible, however, the people of the neolithic period, rather than
content themselves, as they were sometimes obliged, with surface graves in the plain
or cave-burial in the mountains, hewed elaborate tombs out of the solid rock. In form
these, which are the earliest sepulchres of Italy, resemble a narrow oven (i.e., their
ground plan is identical with that of the contemporary house), and the entrance is
furnished either by a sloping passage or by a round pit. The invariable rite is inhumation,
the dead being laid in the u contracted " or " embryonic " posture. The construction of
such graves shows how much can be achieved with quite primitive implements, for metal-
working was still unknown, though tools and weapons were skilfully fashioned from
stones which seem in some cases to be foreign to the country. The superiority of the
newcomers to the aboriginal inhabitants is shown, not only by their dexterous manufacture
of polished stone implements, but also by their skill in pottery making. They did not,
however, extirpate or entirely absorb their ruder neighbours, who continued here and there
to maintain an independent life.

The third stage in the cultural evolution of Italy is signalised by the introduction
of metal-working. This, like the last great change, must be attributed to an unchronicled
immigration, which no doubt came from the East, and perhaps reached Italy across the
sea. The introduction of the use of copper marks the close of the Neolithic Age, but
the employment of stone implements does not cease abruptly ; it is an eneolithic period
which begins. The habits and customs of* the preceding time were not immediately
revolutionised, but a great impetus was given to the arts and industries, in particular to
the manufacture of pottery and of weapons. At the same time commercial relations
were opened with the other Mediterranean countries, and foreign imports increased the
luxury of life. A most important characteristic of the period is the development of
funerary grottoes hewn out of the rock, and the construction (confined, however, to the
Terra d'Otranto and to Corsica) of megalithic monuments similar to those which are
found all over western Europe. The significance of this development will be variously
estimated according as the archaeologist accepts or does not accept unreservedly the
author's opinion that " an artificial eneolithic grotto in Italy speaks the same language
" as a dolmen in Andalusia, Great Britain, or Drenthe." (For the arguments in support
of this view see Bullettino di paletnologia italiana, anno VIII., p. 21.) If megalithic
monuments and artificial grottoes are to be regarded as constituting a single species, the
remainder of the theory follows quite logically. For such constructions are eutirely
absent from central Europe, while it is precisely in that part of the continent, viz., from
Wurtemberg and Savoy to Bavaria and Austria, that lake-dwellings occur. The two
phenomeua then would be mutually exclusive, one civilisation being characterised by
the presence of megalithic monuments, and another of quite different origin by that of
lake-dwellings. The latter would be the work of a fresh race which came along the
valley of the Danube tempted by the chain of lakes. They pushed like a wedge into
the heart of Europe, but all round them their predecessors remained undisturbed, so that
at the present day we may observe bow the megalithic monuments encircle the settlements
of the invaders with a ring which winds from the Caucasus to the Atlantic. The Alps
were no barrier to the lake-dwellers, who crossed into Lombardy and freely planted their
cities there, especially about the Lake of Varese. Like the people amongst whom they
settled their culture was eneolithic, but they showed themselves superior in all arts and
industries with the exception of pottery making. Living in communities of a considerable
size they kept large herds of cattle and cultivated flax and corn on an extensive scale.

The earliest lake-dwellers did not penetrate as far south as the valley of the Po,
and their progress eastwards was abruptly checked by the arrival of a race which was
to fashion the future destinies of Italy, the ancestors, in short, of the Romans. Ethnically
these fresh invaders were of the same stock as the other lake-dwellers, for their habits
of life and their industries were substantially the same. Like them they lived in pile

[ 45 1

Nos. 27-28.] MAN. [1904.

dwellings, but these they constructed not only in the lakes but also on dry land, a
circumstance to which we owe the preservation of their tombs, which reveal a new
burial rite — namely, that of cremation. Their remains can be traced to the valley of the
Danube ; they imported the amber of the Baltic, and brought with them the secret of
bronze working, though they had not wholly abandoned the use of stone implements.
Though their emigration took place at the moment when the civilisation of the East
was at its zenith, it is not clear as yet whether they had any sort of relations with it ;
and not only is there no trace of any intercourse with further Asia,' but there is little-
satisfactory evidence of connections with Asia Minor or the JEgean. Arriving in
Croatia, Moravia, and Lower Austria, their hordes spread out like a fan, one branch
passing down to Bosnia, and another into Venetia, whence it spread into the territory
of Mantua, Brescia, and Cremona. They next crossed the Po, invaded Emilia, and
penetrated to the hills of Porretta.

It was towards the close of the second millenium B.C. that they loft the valley of
the Po, and, following the eastern slope of the Apennines, made their way through the
Marches and the Abruzzi as far south as Tare u turn. This brought them into peaceful
contact with the flourishing communities of Sicily, which they made no effort to conquer ;
and admitted them to participation in the benefits of trade with the JEgean. But 6pace
forbids a detailed account of the development of this splendid Bronze Age civilisation on
which the greatness of Italy was reared. The student must turn to Signor Pigorini's
pages to read how the civilisation of the terremare became the parent of mighty
Rome, and how the construction of the pile dwellings determined the very walls and
streets of the Eternal City. D. RANDALL-MACIVER.

Method. Bury.

An Inaugural Lecture delivered in the Divinity School, Cambridge, January aq
26, 1903. By J. B. Bury. Cambridge: University Press, 1903. 42 pp. £Jj
20 X 13 cm. Price 1*. 6d. net.

This inaugural address of Lord Acton's distinguished successor in the chair of
modern history at Cambridge may be read with profit by students of primitive culture.
It contains a plea for the establishment of historical science upon the broadest and most
comprehensive basis, and a protest against its treatment either as a branch of literature
or a mere register of political eyents. Far from confining itself within such narrow
limits science must avail itself of all possible sources of information bearing upon the
material and spiritual activities of mankind from the dawn of the stone age down to the
present day ; and though it need not be indifferent to the advantages of literary style, it
must never forget that scientific accuracy is the aim and justification of its existence.
The change introduced by the idea of development into modern thought has indeed
transformed the old historical ideals, bringing within the scope of the historian all
records, unwritten as well as written, of the culture and works of man in society, so
that religion and philosophy, literature and the fine arts, archaeology, folklore, and
ethnology are all associated ill one comprehensive scheme of knowledge. This inter-
connection of the histories of various parts of civilisation must be accepted by the
historian as an ideal, even though its complete realisation may at present appear quite
impracticable, and even though it is no longer possible for any single man to cover more
than a small part of so vast a field. The modern conception of history demands the
sacrifice of individual ambition ; it involves much tedious spade work which will bring
little recompense in the form of wealth or recognition ; but it is only on the foundation
laid by such unassuming labour that the great structures of the future can be erected.
This is not to say that the specialist need never lift his eyes from the trench in which
he digs, for even the narrowest work will be the better performed for a general training
in history and a grasp, however slight, of historical perspective. As an instance of a

[ 46 ]

1904.] MAN. [Nos. 28-30.

special subject which still needs patient investigators, Professor Bury cites the problem
of Celtic civilisation in western Europe, the obscurities of which are so perplexing to
those who would trace the course of Western history during the Middle Ages.

This little book may be heartily recommended to anthropologists both for its
singular breadth of view and for its recognition that the obscure unwritten records of
primitive peoples are no less legitimately a subject of historical research than those
archives of civilised nations to which the attention of historians has been so exclusively
confined. O. M. D.

Melanesia. Audrey.

In the Isles of the Sea : the Story of Fifty Years in Melanesia. By Frances aa
Audrey. London : Bemrose and Sons, 1902. 25 x 20. Pp. xiv + 148, with £>%J
appendices and map ; illustrated. Price 5s.

The history of missionary work possesses a twofold interest for anthropologists ; on
the one hand it will always be remembered that for the first and often most valuable
contributions to the knowledge of little known peoples, anthropology has frequently been
indebted to the workers in the missionary field ; while, on the other hand, the account
of their labours sometimes throws much light upon the problems which arise when two
peoples of different race and at different stages of culture come into contact. In the
Isles of the Sea is a brief outline of the history of the Melanesian Mission from
its origin with the appointment of Selwyn as Bishop of New Zealand, to the
present day. It is obviously impossible in the short space of some 140 pages to cover so
large a field in any great detail, and the book is intended to be an introduction to the
subject rather than a complete history ; native customs are only touched upon incidentally r
and the writer in dealing with these matters shows a lack of that sympathy with the
native point of view which is so essential to good work among them. As a result tabu,
the one important institution among the natives of the Pacific, is regarded as foolish.
Although the writer pays no attention to this side of the matter, the mere record of
events given here affords abundant illustration of the importance of an understanding of
the native modes of thought. It would be possible to show from this author's account
alone that civilisation and conversion entail, in the first instance, not so much a change
in the mode of thought as in its manner of expression, action is diverted into another
channel, but the motive which underlies the action is unchanged ; it is precisely under
those circumstances which give rise to a train of emotion for which, to the native mind,
civilisation provides no adequate means of expression, that we find the native reverting
to a " barbarous " or *• foolish " custom ; as, for instance, Christiau natives have been
known to revert to cannibalism under the stress of great fear or excitement. On the
other hand, it is equally true that it is precisely in proportion as the civilising process
has been adapted to the psychological needs of the native that it makes a stronger and
more lasting impression upon him.

In the Isles of the Sea is well illustrated and is also provided with a map and
appendices, one of which deals very briefly with "head hunting/' and another with
the " labour traffic." E. F.

PROCEEDINGS OP SOCIETIES,
London. Anthropological Institute.

Ordinary Meeting, Tuesday, January 12th. Mr. H. Balfour, President, in the j*f|
Chair. UU

The election of Captaiu Pope-Hennessey and Mr. R. B. Seymour Sewell as
Ordiuary Fellows was announced.

Mr. F. C. Shrubsall, M.D., read a paper on Hospital Patients ; a Study in Natural
Selection, The paper was discussed by Mr. Martin, Mr. Gray, Sir H. Johnstou, and
the President.

[ 47 ]

Nos. 30-3L] MAN. [1904.

Annual General Meeting, Tuesday, January 26th. Mr. H. Balfour, President, in
the Chair.

The Reports of the Council and Treasurer were presented and adopted.

The Officers and Council for the ensuing year were elected.

The President delivered his address on The Relationship of Museums to the Study
-of Anthropology.

The official minutes of the meeting with the Reports and the President's address
will be found in full in Journ. Anthr. Inst., XXXIV., p. 1, et seq.

Ordinary Meeting, Tuesday, February 9th. Mr. H. Balfour, President, in the
Chair.

The election was announced of Mr. 6. L. Stallard, LL.B., Mr. F. Mel land, and
Mr. W. J. Lewis Abbott, F.G.S., as Ordinary Fellows of the Institute.

The President exhibited a collection of specimens from the Solomon Islands to
illustrate the influence of one design over the over.

The Assistant Secretary read a paper by Captain S. L. Cummins on Sub- Tribes of
the Bahr-el- Ghazal Dinkas.

Ordinary Meeting, Tuesday, February 23rd. Mr. H. Balfour, Presideut, in the
Chair.

Mr. W. L. Allardyce, C.M.G., delivered a lecture on The Fijians in Peace and
War, and described the Fire -walking ceremony.

The paper was discussed by Mr. Ray, the Hon. H. Hannan, Dr. Garsou, and the
President.

London. The Sociological Society.

When we contemplate the considerable number of scientific societies already Q4
existing, we are, perhaps, inclined to receive with some uneasiness the announce- I
ment of the formation of a new one, and to wonder what the effect may be upon the
older societies. Few, however, if any, will refuse a welcome to the newly-arisen
" Sociological Society/ 1 which bus come into being under most favourable auspices.
Legitimate surprise may be expressed at there having been until now no scientific
organisation in this country dealing exclusively with sociology in a liberal and com-
prehensive manner. In this we are behindhand amongst civilised countries ; but, while
the familiar expression " better late thau uever " comes to our mind, we may see positive
virtue in the " lateness," since it enables the new society to profit by the experience
gained by the similar organisations of some standing which exist in other countries.
The formation of the new society began with an informal preliminary meeting on
May 16th, 1908, which was followed later by a conference of representatives of the
various studies and practical interests concerned, under the chairmanship of Mr. E. W.
Brabrook, C.B., who presided in the absence of the Right Hon. James Bryce, M.P. It
was unanimously resolved to form the society, the resolution being ably and iufluentially
supported by numerous speakers, who approached the subject from a variety of points of
view. A code of rules has already been drawn up, and in Mr. Victor V. Branford (of
5, Old Queen Street, Westminster) au able and enthusiastic secretary has been secured.
The aims of the society are u scientific, educational, and practical. It seeks to promote
" investigation and to advance education in the social sciences in their various aspects
" and applications. Its field covers the whole phenomena of society . . . ." In
addition to holding meetings for the discussion of subjects of interest, it is hoped to form
a really comprehensive sociological library, and to publish a journal as soon as the
finances admit of this being done. The number of supporters is already considerable,
and signs of a bright and useful future are not lacking. We wish the society all success
in a friendly co-operation with those other societies and institutions which are directly
or indirectly concerned with the problems of sociology. HENRY BALFOUR.

Printed by Btrb axd Spottiswoodb, His Majesty's Printer?, East Hardin* Street, E.C.

It ATE D.

Man, 1904

POTTERY VASE FROM THE UPPER AMAZON.

1904.]

MAN.

[No. 32.

ORIGINAL ARTICLES.
Peru. With Plate D< Read.

On Two Pottery Vases from the Upper Amazon, Peru. />.'/ G fil qn

/ •■■..v../. uZ

The Ethnographical Department of the British Museum bae I an

aequisitio leiderable importance is •■ mal botfa

in >i/«- atj'l in mal tug represented in Plate P, Tin* museum owes

this vain i iie liberaliij tattoo on the

oppe of iIk a in .in £,000 miles month. Thi

eoloi *e!s should have readied the British Museum unharmed i-

thoughtful care o( Mr. Charles Bootl^ who kindly su transport, so thai

from [quitoc V »I (bare was no transhipm

A reference to the scale will give an idea Q usual dimension

represented* which Is about ibeaameah ompnuiop (Figs* I and 2). The

neter of tin- one shown In the plate ii tea, and the befght S feet \\ Inches ;

oondf the height it , anil the diams iuches. The hide

the somewhat unusual proportions of the vessel, the base diminishing

small foot of about 8 inches in diameter, so <m ■ lei I i*

BOSK seonre, even when empty. The most remarkable poiut about die reeeel is

that its Sides an Ottly from a quarter of an ineli In half ao inch in thickness, and for

any potter to make a -neb dimensions of BUCb thi □ any DOQ&try

^i ttntt it fvree % bul in the prosenl ease the potter seems to Lave ileiil tdded to

difficulties by making the upper pari almosi horizontal, while Ihe month Is further

svetL die hulk of the vertical nerk. How this upper part was supported in the

of manufacture, and more especially in the firiug of the piece, is not eas\

Understand, hut. as the pla nit displays a perfectly symmetrical outline,

weA from above the side. We have no information as to the

ular tribe producing these remarkable bat s much smaller specimen which

been for boom in the British Museum i* stated i«» have been made i.y the

[adieus of thi f the affluents of the Upper Amazon. This

hift< identical in farm and lar in ornam tat shown in our ]>

Tbe&tayof which tb< Is ol tl )mmoo buff colour, the eurl

of which appeared h> the eye of ihe Indian potter to need some modification; ha
therefore, tukru n lire win: tin- nature of pipeclay, and has applied tie

over the whole of the upper part of tie dishing the i bone

or a smooth stone. Upon this the decoration is applied in ■ kind of distemper, producing
a aomewhat eccentric geometrical • cecuted in ochre with brown outlines.

thi- has been originally 1 coat of varnish, now to a great extent wmn off. A similar

liod of decoration was not uncommon in ancient Mexico, where ih< use of whs
technically known as M sl1p d1 was thoroughly well under- 1 Land S large number of \

from the cemetery in the Island of Sa.:riticios have a white costing as a base for their

decoration ; hut it is obvious thai. lours not being burnt in and

protected by a e..rti -li f the vessels must have bees coi with

little doubt thai the ornamentation, sosaptleated as it appears,
b:i~ in in plaited designs* This has been well Insisted upon by Mr. William

II. Holme- Q the fourth Ii* port of ih

Eiknotopgi i Mr- Holmes there points nut bow s ooxred pattern, -

iced to plaiti nes lingular, and, iii one instance, Fig. 16Q, demonstrates how

interlock i ngnlar frel may ; continuous spiral. In the vase shewn

in our [date it will b tc Indian qusI have carefully set not hi*

„ r u before proceeding to paint it, as he has throughout preserved the bal inoe of the
■> and made a r her vase, sent bv Mr. Lofl&SSj

[ f* ]

Nos. 32-33.]

MAN.

[1904.

ij somewhat sturdier build (Fig*. 1 unci 2), and, in addition, does tiol show tin-
amount ion, but it ; an added feature in

1 wooppofl

• ml

uriv bigh relief,
tuliaritj is the follow-
ing ; the ornamentation bete

:res is uot the lama
on botfa -mIos of the I the

side (the lower in Figi - ) the
lines forming tbe pattern are i<
angular with the radii of the circle
tied bg the outline of tbe va

OH die other they intersect the radii
at :i of lo degrees. The

* IQ - ■• well preserved, and thus shows

Dtora Hem I v what was the original intention of the potter.

It would seem to be fairly certain that thes- unless partly sunk in the earth,

could enlj have been used lo contain dry contents which must have been tight in ireigbl i

filled with liquid and standing up

an even surface the movement of

the liquid inside would ai

be disastrous to the vessel* but the

small ness of the base and the fa. r
that the lower part is undecornted
in hoth cases make it probable that

s were kepi partly em-
bedded in the floor of the bouse,

An illustration of thepos-iH.
method hv which, at any rate, the
base of Mich vases might be bull I

up can be seen in the recently

ptltdi-hid GtMS 00 the d l/iflyititif >J

the Hnw . the British

Jfustuut, where, on pag

shown the method of manufacture

of 8 Bronze Age bow] from the
ear)} settlements on thesoufh-<
in. It would a p| i

that, a etivityof the required shape lMfl * *

made b the earth and the clay required to make the vessel was then moulded In the
hole^ so that (taring the process the whole of the outside was well supported, and at the

same time the inside could he carefully smoothed, and, if allowed to <hy ut situ, such a
howl euuld he I safely lired. C. H, READ.

Africa, West. Report.

Notes on the Form Of the Binl Government- Extract /mm a lie port a A

to tin Colonial Offi^e^ permission to reproduce which has been obtained for th* yj

Anthropological Institute by the kindnSSS at the Trustees of the British Museum.

As in most African kingdoms, there is a link with the past in the Hini form of
government. In some cases it is simply a title of the living- king, meaning the spirit
of the late king ; in the case of Biui it is the i|Uecii-motln i .

[ w ]

1904.] MAN. [No. 33.

The queen-mother, Ioba, has her residence at Shelu, near to the entrance gate to
Benin City on the Yira road. As the mother of the king she maintains a court of her
own composed of :

Amoma, her wife. r Iwebo.

Amada, her naked bojs ; J Ibiwe.

And the chiefs of the four (following) 1 Iwegwe.

Affinaa •__ I Twn.aa

offices : — ^ Iwase.

Amoma, the wife of the queen-mother, evidently means her companion. Women in
the Kongo often talk of their greatest woman friend in this way.
The four offices will be explained as we proceed.
Ioba had the privilege of sacrificing human beings.

It is said that the father of the first Bini king (called Bini, one of the six sons of
Oyo by the Yoruba historians) came to Benin City by the Yira road and asked the
King of Efa (the people), called Ogifa, for a place to live in. Ogifa is said to have
granted him that part of the city which he and his people had vacated owing to sickness
aud death. This son of Oyo after a time declared that the smell of the place displeased
him (and not being able to speak their language), that he was disgusted and meant to
leave it. Before going he informed Ogifa that a certain woman, a daughter of Ogiegaw,
was in child to him and that they could put this offspring in his place. He then left by
the Udo road and returned to Uhe or Ife.

This son they called Eweka (the one that clasped or joined the people together),
and from him the present Overami, the deposed Oba, claims to be descended. But it is
not my intention to trouble you here with historical folklore, but rather to transmit to
you a few notes on the system of government in vogue in Benin City and dependencies
before the occupation.

The Oba's throne or chair was placed on a mud platform three steps above the
ground aud was called Ekete.

His official dress was of beads and composed of his —

Eruivie, crown. Egwonwe, anklets.

Odigba, collar. Ebe, a flat kind of sword in his right hand.

Ewivie, coat. Erigo, a two-pronged instrument in his left

Eruhan, skirt. hand.

Egwunbaw, bracelets.
But you have seen the picture in brass work (see Plate VIII., Fig. 3, Antiquities
of Benin City), so that further description of him is unnecessary. And I need not dwell
on the atrocious despotism and abuse of power which finally brought Overami to his
ruin and necessitated II. M. Government placing the people under the protection of
His Majesty King Edward VII.

The king's immediate attendants may be recognised by the custom of wearing their
back hair divided by three partings, a custom they had the honour of sharing with Oba
aud Ioba. Their title was that of Ogbon, their manners and offices as under : —
Eh ioba, representing the spirit of the king.
Ohionba, „ head „

Ewen, the wise man.

) \ \ His private chaplains (or Ohoen Ovisa, men of God).
*> (- ) J
Nabori (1), who helped to dress him and uphold his right arm.
» (2), „ „ „ left „

Inenel__

T > Men in waiting.

Inaza J °

The king had other servauts attached to his household, such as —

Ihodon, in charge of the Iwarame or herdsmen.

[ 51 ]

No. 33.] MAN. [1904.

Itie Nigun 1 „ r t . ,

Fh 1 2 I orkers id brass and carvers in ivory.

Awsa, juju maker.

Amagizemi, storekeeper (from the Portuguese word anutgazem, a store).
The sons of the Oba were called Obioba, and of these the eldest was called Edaikin
aud had his residence at Shelu, while the other sons used to be sent out as viceroys to
govern different outlying districts or collection of towns (Adesebo). 1 may mention a few
of these districts : —

Unwan, under Ogie Unwan or Og'Unwan. Use, under Ogyuse.

Ugo Ni Kekuromo, under Ogugo. Utokka, under Ogutokka.

Ugo Nikekpoba, under Ogugo. Ebwe, under Ogebwe.

In the case of Overami, Egwabasimi is Edaikin, and Oswalele the other son, the
daughter being Ebahabukun, Omono, and Orinyami.

These viceroys were called Ogisi, and their sons succeed to the title and vice-
kingddm.

The children of the daughter of the Oba are called Ekaiwi. Osula is an Ekaiwi.
There are six great chiefs outside the compound of the king who represent the Oba
hi one or other of the six great offices in the state : — Ezomo, Ero, Oliha, Edaikin, Ogifa,
and lyase.

Ezomo in popular parlance is the great war chief ; but, as a matter of fact, combined
with his office of head of the army is an office equivalent in a primitive fashion to that
of Lord Chancellor as head of the court of equity. This great chief had a court of his
own (in which the late Olugbosheri, who is succeeded by his sou, played a prominent
part) composed of the offices of Iwebo, Iwegwe, Ibiwe, and Iwase.

Ero was a great judge and head of all the policemen, a kind of Lord Chief Justice.
Oliha acted as a kind of Archbishop of Canterbury and crowned the king. The above
three great chiefs had with the Oba and Ioba the privilege of sacrificing human l>eings.

Edaikiu, as the eldest son, represented the state for his father outside the compound
and was head of the learned medicine men.

Ogifa is the head of all the people, who called them all together in case of any
palaver.

The above are all succeeded in office by their sons.

lyase is the head of the nobles of Egaidu, such as Ehaza, Eson, Isogban, and others
who were the chiefs of different quarters of the city. He had the right to pick men out
of the different offices of the king's assessors and promote them to be Egaidu ; Ehaza, for
instance, served under Unwagwe, the crhief of the king's Iwebo, and was made Egaidu.

lyase may be chosen out of all the great chiefs ; his son does not succeed him in
his office. When the king dies, and during the interreguum, lyase is regent. The?e last
three great pro-kings had the right to sacrifice a cow to their father and a cow to their
mother.

Without the compound — that is among the nobles and people — these six pro-kings
and theEgaibu were paramount, but within the same the chiefs of the six great divisions
in the king's government were paramount, and the king could be approached through
one of them.

The six great offices in the government of the country were called : —
Iwebo, a primitive form of the court of Equity.
Abiogbe, „ „ „ Justice.

Ihogbwi, „ „ „ Church.

Iwase, „ „ „ State.

Iwegwe „ „ „ Commons.

Ibiwe „ „ „ Lords.

Each office was filled by a pair of assessors aud their followers.

[ 52 1

1. Ayabahau.

2. Osagwe,

Ehioba.

Ehaza.

Olaiyi.

Oshia.

Obadwagbon.

1904.] MAN. [No. 33«

Unwagwe and Elibo represented the office of Iwebo. When Oba " made father "
it was Unwagwe's duty to carry to him the plate of cowries to be sprinkled with chalk,
and the beads that were washed in the blood of the human beings sacrificed. They also
had charge of these articles and were arbitrators in the compound. The names of some of
the chiefs I give, and in the following order : — (1.) Those who could sacrifice one cow to
their father and oue to their mother. (2.) Those who could sacrifice one cow to their father
and one goat to their mother. (3.) Those who could sacrifice a goat to their father.

3. Awsolaiyi.

Ebalogban.

Elio.

Unoyinye.

Asokon.

Nabori I.

Nabori IT.

Inene.
The office of Abiogbe is in the hands of Okaiboga (1), Okai Wagga (1), and
Okadogira (3). They were the chiefs of all the Okow (or headmen or policemen).
They looked after the streets and land questions. Okaiboga, for instance, used to allot
and conduct the king's sons to their districts, and, until H.B.M. Government took over
the government of the country, used to receive yearly presents from those princes he had
installed.

The Ihogbwi were the sacrificing or the atoning priests and were of three grades : —

o* c- i f Succeeded by his sou.

2. Sighure J J

3. Legama.

Iwase was the office of the learned medicine men under the chief pair, (3) Igwesibo
and (3) Ogiemese, some of whose followers were : —

3. Obemawaw. Obadialu. Obadige.

Ogimase. Aroyhia. Obariaee.

Obakbe. Assohan. Otomi Ni Wegie.

Edaligbon.
The two chiefs at the head of the office called Iwegwe were Isiri and Bazilu, and
they had to look after the common welfare of the household. The word Iwegwe is in
some way connected with the season of plenty or harvest. The names of some of their
followers were as under : —

1. Aswen. 2. Obaseki. 3. Zama. >

Obadisagbon. Obadagboyi. Ogbaylogboi.

Obanyagbon. Akenowa.

Otomu Ni Wegbe. Ogwa.

Chomba.
Ewen.
The office of Ibiwe was confided to the care of Ine (Yamo) and Obazwaiyi. They
seem to have had charge of the living people of the household and had to keep Oba in
wives and slaves. They were, in fact, overlords. The names of some of their more
important followers were : —

1. Abohon. 2. Arase. 3. Ibagwa.

Imaran. Obayagbon. Osiogwa.

Oshudi, in charge of Eholo.

king's wives. Awbamoyi.

Awbalaiyi. Usho.

Bayawana.

Imasogie.

L 53 ]

Nob. 33-34.]

MAN.

[1904.

All the chiefs in these six offices had the right to wear the collar of beads called
Odigba. These pairs of chiefs, with the exception of Ihama are not succeeded by their
sons in office. Their offspring all come under the heading in which their father served,
that is to say, all the children of an Iwegwe are of Iwegwe, all the children of an Ibiwe
are of Ibiwe, and so on.

No one could approach the Oba save through one of the chiefs in the king 1 ?
compound, and all tribute (EdigweJ was paid to the king through them, they receiving
25 per cent, of the same for their work. These chiefs were called Notweyebu. Each
of these Notweyebu had boys in the towns paying tribute through them, and these were
called their messengers or Okushuebu, but an ambassador sent by the king was called
Okawba.

The Bini kingdom then was governed by the (I) king, (2) five hereditary pro-king3,
one elected pro-king, and (3) twelve assessors, and was divided into six great divisions
or offices. Thus, bereft of personal attendants, the constitution resolves itself into the
following formula : —

—

Pro- Kings.

Kinpr or Oba and
Assessors.

Offices.

Lord Chancellor -

Ezomo.

Unwage.
Elibo.

Iwebo.

Equity.

Lord Chief Justice -

Ero.

Okaiboga.
Okai Wagga.

Abiogbe.

Justice.

Archbishop

Oliha.

Ihama.
Sighuie.

Ihogbwi.

Church.

Head of the State -

Edai Kin.

Igwesibo.
Ogiemese.

Iwase.

State.

Speaker -

Ogifa.

Isibi.
Bazilu.

Iwegwe.

Commons.

Speaker - - -

lyase.

Ine.
Obazwaiyi.

Ibiwe.

Lords.

Pahang: Stone Implements,
Note on Stone Implements flrom Pahang.

Swan.

By R. M. fV. Swan.

(1.) Thirteen well-shaped stone implemeuts and fragments of implements. ■

They were found on or near the surface of the ground, or in the possession of
natives in Pahang in the Malay Peninsula. The native Malays know nothing of their
origin, but suppose it to be supernatural, and seem to associate them with thunderbolts.

Most of the imple-
*X ..' ' ments are of the same

sort of stone. This is
found in several parts
of the state. Some of
the implements are de-
composed on the sur-
face, while others have
not suffered decomposi-

J if

LlAKSTVMC *««. W

5 T

[

QVCKMST*"*.

PIG. 1.

SECTION THROUGH THE

UI VALLEY.

54 ]

lM m w WM.f>

1904.]

MAN.

[No. 34.

tion or have bad the decomposed matter rubbed off. Similar stone implements are found
io the neighbouring states.

(2.) A rude implement was found about 2 feet below the surface in stiff clay.

(3.) The rudest implement was found by myself at the IxMom of an alluvial
gold mine in the Tni valley in Pahang, and it had not been disturbed in its position
when I found it. It lay in a deposit of gravel on crystalline limestone rock, and
over it had been a deposit of gravel and clay 43 feet thick. This clay undoubtedly
had been derived from the decomposition of some greenstone hills and ridges which
form the sides of the valley. It is known that these hills had originally been over-
laid by the limestone on which the implement rested, and it was only when sufficient
of the limestone had been dissolved away to allow the greenstone to emerge that this
latter rock began to yield the clay which was derived from its decomposition. The
amount of denudation or dissolution of the limestone since this emergence has been at
least 300 feet. The gravel in which the implement was found had been laid down by
river action when the surface of the limestone was at least 300 feet higher than it is at
present, and it would seem that at this period or earlier the implement had been
fashioned and then lost in the gravel.

It might be contended that the greenstone hills may not have decomposed and
yielded their clay immediately on the:r emergence from the limestone, but it is impro-
bable that there would be any great interval of time between those two occurrences,
because the greenstone would be decomposed by the action of the surface waters, which
would reach it through fissures in the limestone while it was still covered by a great
thickness of that rock, and it would thus on its emergence be in a condition very favourable
to rapid denudation. I have examined fissures which go down several hundreds of feet in
the limestone at the Tui, and the greenstone is completely decomposed to great depths.

It would seem that we might take the denudation of 300 feet of limestone as an
approximate measure of the antiquity of the implement. The rate of the denudation of
the limestone is not known, but it is comparatively rapid under the conditions of
climate and vegetation prevailing in Pahang. The temperature is high and the waters
are heavily charged with carbonic acid and products of vegetable decomposition. In
any case it would seem that the implement must be of very great antiquity.

(4.) The two fragmeuts of a stone ring were found about a foot deep in the surface
soil at the Tui. They are similar to, but are better formed than, some other rings which

[ 55 ]

Nob. 34-36.]

MAN.

[1904.

were found near the Tenon norths One of these Ii

is, I believe, in L rem) are in the must nm at Tatpiug

in Pemk. The i rv carefully framed and D

( ( i Ban be mosl readily shown by piecinj
;ig around ll ii a pencil, and tnlar are formed by h pair of

i m Chinese in Pahang have an able theory of the origin of

, and it > improbable thai beau

made by either of the**- people*. X^-min^ ilun i] ■ would be made

utxremeot, I tested the dim* » the I ui one, bur could gel no elm

ystem oj nent. The use of the via

cannot have I i on the person an nrnaneota, end they are too lighi and fcagil

-. The only supposition that suggests itself le that tl
limy hn tie, H 4 M. \\\ SU AN.

Obituary. Murray.

Alexander Stuart Murray, LUD., F.S.A.: born January 8th, 1841; QC
died March 5th, 1904. 00

mparutirely early age of sixty-three, of Dr« Alexi
Murray, the 8 sk an l Roman Antiquities in the British lit deuce Fn

genera^ and the Museum in particular, has loel one of 1 1 ^ mot si leaders* Bono

on January 8th, 1841, Dr. Murray wai <l at

Edinburgh end at Berlin Univaraitiee, and in U
he began hit long connection with the British
Museum, being appointed assistant iti the depart-
ment of Greek and B rtiquitias in Febnu
of that year. From that time to tlie day of
deatl Minis* if to the suhjecl ot Tireek

Roman art He was appointed keeper of hie depart*
; in I ssii„ and era* further honoured by being
made a correspondent of th< Institute of Prei
]\\< published works constated largely of official

publteattOQS, hut he ulao wrote histories of Or-
Sculpture and of Greek Arduenlo^v , while as
recently as Lesl yi ai he published a work on the
Parthenon Sculpture*, DTi Murray was never a
Fellow of the Anthropological Institute, hut Ids
work, dealing as it did with early art in it* beat
period, if hilly anthropological in chariot

If is impossible, in so short a notice as this must necessarily be, to pay more than a

slight tribute to Dr. Murray's work and powers, but enough ha* been said to ihow how
f is the loss which archeology baa suffered by his early death.
We are indebted to the courtesy of the proprietor* of the Graphic for the portrait of

Dr, II 1 1 mi v.

,i Fry,

REVIEWS.

Psychology

Btoll.

Stiff tj t wtion und Hypnotism** in der Volkerptyekohgie* Von I>r, Had. < Hto Stoll, qq
2te Auflage. Leipzig : Yeir, L9M. Pp. % [-7%& 24 X 16 urn. Price 16 marks. wD
In the ten years thai have elapsed Bines this work lirst appeared it has added more
than 200 pages to its hulk, Nearly one-third of this supplementary matter deals with
the psychological phenomena of the French Revolution, Of the remainder not much
lees thai half is devoted to the consideration of suggestive elements, in the individual

M ]

1904.] MAN. [No. 36.

and national life of West European peoples, semi-civilised and barbarous nations take up
another 200 pages, leaving only about 100 pages each for the savages of the present
day and the civilised peoples of antiquity.

This somewhat striking disproportion depends in part on the somewhat peculiar
sense given by Dr. Stoll to the term suggestion ; in part on the fact that as a rule
anthropologists have, either intentionally or from lack of knowledge, failed to take note
of the psychological or physiological phenomena which would at once attract the atten-
tion of observers familiar with hypnotism aud the pheuomena commonly termed
spiritualistic ; and in part on the fact that the possibilities of suggestion are increased,
though perhaps the sensibility is diminished in proportion as man rises in the scale of
civilisation.

Dr. Stoll classifies suggestions into direct and indirect. Direct suggestions are
such as depend on direct nervous stimulation combined with the results of experience
as preserved by memory, and include all sounds, so far as they are audible, as well as
impressions conveyed through the senses of sight, touch, taste, and smell. The sounds of
understood language and other stimuli, so far as they convey ideas and are less directly
dependent on immediate sense impressions for their effect, are termed indirect or secon-
dary suggestions. From this it is clear that in dealing with suggestions Dr. Stoll draws
no clear line of distinction between effects due to the association of ideas aud effects which
may be properly referred to suggestion. How far this view of the case carries him may
be seen from an example on p. 392, in which the Gilbcrtian idea of making the punish-
ment fit the crime is regarded as a case of suggestion. Jf the work has lost none of its
interest for the general reader by the refusal of its author to attempt a definition of
his subject and determine roughly where psychical suggestion, as we may term it into
contradistinction to the ordinary use of the word, the scientific reader will probably
regret the somewhat wide field which the author has undertaken to cover.

It could hardly under the circumstances be expected that Dr. Stoll would desire or
be able to give us an exhaustive discussion of any of the numerous problems on which
he touches. To take ouly one example, he quotes only one case of the fire-walk, and
does not seem to know that Mr. Lang has collected and discussed a large number of
cases. Prima facie wc have no reasuu to suppose that a certain amount of auto-
suggestive amesthesia during the performance of the rite, followed by a suppression of
inflammatory symptoms, for which European hypnotic clinics can supply parallels, will
uot suffice to explaiu the facts. This question, and mauy others raised by Dr. Stoll, is
complicated by the necessity of discussing the value of the evidence. It has often been
asserted that the skin of the fire -walkers shows no signs of the application of heat,
but this assertion is hardly borne out by the evidence of competent witnesses, and
scientific evidence of the temperature to which the skin has been exposed is, as a rule,
lacking. In oue case at least (Hull, de la Soc. de Geog. Xormande, X. 396) a 3inell of
burning flesh is asserted to have beeu perceived during an analogous performance.

The ordeal just alluded to was undergone by a member of a sect whom Dr. Stoll,
singularly enough, does not mention — the Aissaoua. The narrative contains even more
sensational incidents, as to the reality of which the narrator, a member of a French
mission, seems to have entertained no doubt. One dervish, for example, is said to have
taken a rapier and passed it through his body from side to side just beneath the ribs.
When it was drawn out only slight traces of blood ^\ere apparent. Dr. Stoll cites some
aualogous cases from Siberia (p. 31) and does not seem disposed to consider the difficult
question of malobservation, errors of memory, hallucination, or trickery, though it is
(dear that we cannot discuss problems of this nature with profit without some attempt
to estimate the siiare of any or all these elements in the story as we read it.

Another difficult question, which is uot discussed by Dr. Stoll, is the alleged
immunity against snake and other poisons attributed to certain persons, amongst others,

[ 67 1

Nos. 36-37.] MAN. [1904.

the Aissaoua. Waring tells us {Coll. of Mod, Voyages* VI. 53) that he saw his servant
stung by a scorpion, accidentally discovered beneath a bed, aud asserts that the man
suffered from no ill-effects. The other servants, who did not claim this magical power,
termed Dum* unfortunately refused to allow the scorpion to sting them, and the
question whether it was temporarily innocuous remained unsettled.

In dealing with lycanthropy Dr. Stoll quotes the statement in Pierce's Life*
according to which hyenas, which are the wer-animals of Abyssinia, are frequently found
with rings in their ears. These he supposes to have been put there by the Budas, who
have the reputation of being able to transform themselves. It is rather singular that he
does not quote the far more striking story of Coffin, who hired one of these Budas,
and apparently shared iu a collective hallucination, if the facts, reported unfortunately at
second-hand, are correct. The Buda got leave one evening to absent himself till
morning, and left the camp in broad daylight. Coffin had hardly turned his head when
some of his other servants called out that the Buda was turning into a hyena. On
looking he saw only a large hyena, a hundred paces distant on an open plain without
a bush to hide anyone. With this may be compared a vaguer story given in a note
to Rawlinson's Herodotus* IV. 105. It is a matter for regret that neither of the
observers had the presence of mind to try a crucial experiment with a shot-gun.

On the whole, fascinating as Dr. Stoll's exposition of his subject is, his book would
have been, from the scientific point of view, far more valuable if the arrangement had
been topical instead of topographical. A complete discussion of a few problems would
have been more useful if not more interesting than a work dealing with such essen-
tially different questions as profound physiological modifications due to suggestion and
auto-suggestion on the one hand and subjective hallucinations, the advantage to a doctor
of a good bedside maimer, and the influence of quack remedies on the other.

The index is hardly on a scale commensurate with the size or importance of the
book. Even if the arrangement of the facts had been topical and a good table of
conteuts had been provided, 400 entries for a book of nearly 750 pages would have beeu
short measure. As it is, nothing short of reading the work through will enable one to
find all the data on a given question such as lycanthropy. In other words, its utility
as a work of reference is greatly impaired. N. W. T.

Egypt. Qarstang.

Tombs of the Third Egyptian Dynasty. By John Garstang, B.A., B.Litt., g\^
F.S.A. London: Constable, 1904. 70 pp. and 33 quarto plates. 32 x 26 cm. Uf
Price 2 1 s.

It is only three years since Mr. Garstang's discoveries revealed the first traces of
the third dj nasty at Bet Khallaf in Upper Egypt, a few miles north of Abydos. In
the preseut work he follows up his previous account of the period with the record of a
second season's work in the same neighbourhood. The book is far the best which has
yet come from his pen and will constitute a valuable addition to the library alike of the
Egyptologist aud of the general archaeologist. Excavations which were conducted with
the most conscientious care and minuteness are chronicled in a form which shows that
the author has devoted much time and thought to the co-ordination and arrangement of
bis material. Some well-drawn plans and a number of collotype plates of unusual
excellence illustrate the well-ordered description of the exploration, which is amplified
by several chapters of a more general historical character. The reader will appreciate
the author's efforts to present his conclusions in a readable style ; in which, though his
literary craftsmanship is by no means faultless, he achieves a considerable measure of
success. In the technique of publication there is little to criticise except a want of
uniformity in the style of numbering adopted for the plates, and the selection of a paper
which is rather too unsubstantial for a book that must necessarily be much handled.

[ 58 ]

1904.] MAN. [No. 37.

At the beginning of the volume is placed a short list of dates, in whbh it must he
observed that Mr. Garstnng has chosen to follow the new Germau scheme of chronology.
In spite of certaiu advantages that it offers there are grave objections to this system,
which has met with little acceptance ontside Berlin ; and we doubt whether it is
advisable to substitute it even for the unsatisfactory dating in common use. The first
chapter is introductory and is followed by an able exposition of a thesis on " the con-
tinuity of the Early History," which a Fachgenosse may allow himself to criticise.
Mr. Gars tang maiutains that the whole trend of recent archaeological discovery teuds to
prove the u n broke u continuity of the archaic civilisation. The great pyramid-builders,
in his view, only inherited and developed a culture bequeathed to them by the first three
dynasties, and these latter (the " proto-dynastic people") did nothing more than elaborate
the details of a life which was fixed in all essentials during the pre-dynastic period. It
is here that we should join issue with our author. He places the beginning of the first
dynasty — not, indeed, without authority — at the point 80 in the system of "sequence-
dates." We should prefer to place it at sequence-date 70, and this alteration would
destroy much of the force of the argument that the products of the latest pre-dynastic
are identical with those of the earliest proto-dynastic time. The question would then
be — Is the civilisation after sequence-date 70 so different from what precedes it as to
necessitate the hypothesis of a different origin ? Here a point of cardinal importance is
the exact date of the introduction of hieroglyphs, and we cannot unreservedly accept
Mr. Garstang's argument on the subject. He adduces the El Amrah slate and certain
inscribed vases of uudoubted predyuastic type which were purchased from a dealer as
proof that the knowledge of writing is older than the first dynasty. But it is still open
to doubt whether the sign on the El Amrah slate is strictly hieroglyphic, and while it
may be couceded that there is no evident trace of forgery in the letters upon the bought
vase s, yet they stand alone against the strong negative evidence of many hundreds of
pre dyuastic tombs which have been opened by trained archaeologists who have not found
in them a single trace of writing. Until unimpeachable examples can be brought
forward to prove the coutrary we shall continue to hold that the introduction of hiero-
glyphic writing is only contemporary with the first dynasty ; aud tliat an innovation of
such significance may justifiably be viewed as markiug a discontinuity of culture though
not necessarily a discontinuity of race.

On the other hand, the assertion that the third dynasty is in respect of its civilisation
the natural successor of the first and second and the no less natural precursor of the
fourth is amply demonstrated by the facts recorded in these pages. Many of the types
of pottery and objects characteristic of the first and second dynasties survive in the
third with an admixture of precisely those which have hitherto been regarded as peculiar
to the Old Kingdom, and a series of illustrations exemplifies the evolution of the complete
raastaba from the early stairway tombs. The comparative studies of tomb-construction
indeed are among the most valuable features of the book. It is shown that the arch,
of which the earliest appearance may now be dated to the third dynasty, was spon-
taneously developed under the necessity of devising a means for spanning a wide space
with brickwork ; and the stages which led to its invention are convincingly described
and illustrated. Moreover, the observations made at Reqaqnah and in the neighl>ourhood
have explained much that was obscure in the work of previous writers. Thus the
stairway-tombs of El Kab are for the first time put into their proper relation, and a
special chapter devoted to the curious pot burials shows that they must be regarded not
as mere pauper graves but as a distinct and peculiar class of interment.

The numerous objects found in the graves are fully figured in the plates and
described in the text of this very complete memoir. D. UANDALL-MACIVEK.

f 59 ]

Kos. 38-39.] MAN. [1904.

Ethnography. Keller.

Queries in Ethnography. By Albert Galloway Keller, Pb.D., Assistant Pro- QQ
feasor of the Science of Society in Yale University. Sew York : Longmans, JO
1903. 16 x 10 cm. Price 2s.

This baudy little manual of seventy pages will be found useful by travellers and
others. It is admittedly inspired by tbe Notes and Queries on Anthropology issued
by the Institute, and the writer frankly confesses his indebtedness to that volume. Tbe
difference in plau, however, is slight, and Somatic anthropology is altogether omitted.
Dr. Keller has grouped his questions under more general heads, such as Maintenance,
Perpetuation, and the Societal System, including even language in the first of these
divisions. There is in reality no essential difference between the present Queries and
the Institute's publication, and I must confess my inability to see the difference of
method in the queries themselves that Dr. Keller finds betweeu the two. The Iustiiute,
however, welcomes any book likely to forward its studies, and this little volume may be
included in that category. C. H. READ.

British Genius. Ellis.

A Study of British Genius. By Havelock Ellis. London: Hurst & Blackett, QQ
1904. 22 x 13 cm. Price 7s. 6d. 0u

The estimation of the amount aud distribution of genius iu the British Isles is a
subject which has attracted the attentiou of Mr. Galtou, Sir Conan Doyle, aud other
students of the scieuce of man, and in this work of Mr. Havelock Ellis the subject is
agaiu dealt with in a very fascinating style, and more exhaustively than by any of his
predecessors. The object of these studies appears to be to form some estimate of the
mental capacity of a people by ascertaining the percentage of persons who pass above a
certain high-water mark of ability, and to aseertaiu the biological and psychological
characteristics of these men of genius.

The publication of the Dictionary of National Biography has supplied the author
with the material he requires. Out of the 30,000 names iu the famous dictionary he has
selected about 1,000 (1,030) which he considers to be the most eminent. His method of
selection appears to be as nearly perfect as is possible under the circumstances, and we
may take it that if selections of 1,000 of the most eminent men were made by other
independent persons there would be no substantial difference iu the geniuses included in
the list.

Cattell has estimated that of 1,000 most eminent persons iu the civilised world about
one quarter are British. If this flattering estimate is correct the British people form one
of the most promising fields for the study of genius.

Mr. Ellis finds that the number of eminent men produced in the British Isles per
century gradually increases from 5 in the eleventh century to 372 iu the eighteenth
century. This increase is no doubt partly at least due to the increase of population and
to the fact that the environment has become more favourable to the development of
genius in the later centuries.

The author, however, appears to forget the effect of this iucrease of the number of
geniuses when he comes to the conclusion that the second halves of centuries produce
more geniuses than the first halves. Taking the figures given for the seven centuries
preceding the nineteenth we find that 313 geniuses were born in the first halves and
479 in the second halves of the centuries [the numbers are incorrectly given by the
author as 323 and 487]. This gives an excess of 166 in favour of the second halves.
This looks a large difference, and at first sight would seem to imply that the purely
arbitrary divisions of time had some influence on the production of genius. But the
application of statistical analysis will show that there is no significant difference in
the genius-producing power of people living in the first aud second halves of centuries.

[ 60 ]

1904.] MAN. [ff<K Ml

Even if we neglect r.h*» Eniliieiiee of the increase of population we shall find* on making
the necessary <?aI*aJa£R>«i,. that the ditFerenee between the means for the first and second
half group-* won Li require to be four time* greater than what it is l»cfore we could be
certain that there was any reaL drtferenee iri the genius -producing power of the peopl* iu
the two jrroap** tbat are being com pared.

The above i* deed as aa example that erroneous conclusions mar l»c dr&wu from
difference* of average* when the material we are dealing with is uot perfectly uuilfortu
and homogeneous. When the material, dealt with consists of a finite number of units* all
differing more or le^s from the average of the group, the difference between each pair of
sampler drawn for comparison will pcobaMy be different, so that no safe conclusion e&u
lie drawn from the difference of one pair of samp'es. This, however* is what Mr. Kllis
is continually doing throughout this work : be makes no allowance for the variation in
his groap>s nv for numbers in his group*. His conclusions may happeu in most
case? to W right* but thev cannot be received as established scientific conclusions till the
nece*sary statistical analysis has been made.

WitL tills reservation we may accept temporarily the many interesting conclusions
which Mr. Ellis has arrived at from his study of British genius. Mr. Kilts finds that
of his geiiin«es 659 are Ecglisb. 28 Welsh, 137 Scotch, 63 Irish, aud the re^ mixed.
This on the b*.-i* of present population gives per unit of population 21 to En&laud ami
Wales. CO to Scotland, and 14 to Ireland. The best geuius-producing crosses among
British nationalities are English and Welsh, but English and French has proved a far
superior cross to any purely native mixture.

In England there are three principal genius producing districts ; — (H East Anglia
(Norfolk. Suffolk, and Essex) ; (2) south-west district (Wilts, Somerset, Dorset, Devon,
an* J Cornwall; : (3) Welsh border i Gloucester, Warwick, Hereford, Shropshire, and
Cheshire >. Each district appears to produce a distinctive class of genius ; the south*
west district, for example, has produced by far the largest number of distinguished
sailors, while the genius of the Welsh bonier district is artistic and poetic.

Scotland stands at the head of the list for the production of distinguished soldiers
and scientific men. Ireland excels in one thing only, namely, in the production of actors
and actresses.

Of all social classes the clergy, in proportion to their numbers produce the largest
numl>er of geniuses : they also produce the largest number of idiot*. Carpenters stand
far ahead of other craftsmen as producers of genius ; 35 per cent, of distinguished artists
are the sons of carpenters. No eminent sons of doctors have ever become doctors.

It appears lhat the p.ireuts of geniuses have much larger families than the normal.
The average size of the normal family is 1*5, while the average si/e of the gcuiu*-
producing family is 6'5. From an examination of the figures given this fact appears to
be well established, and not merely due to chance, and it appears to ha\e a most
important bearing on the theory of the origin of genius.

Mr. Ilavelock Ellis is of the opinion that there is a close- connection between genius
ami idiocy. He is opposed, however, to the view expressed by some other writers, that
genius is connected with insanity, seeing that only 4*2 per cent, of his 1,(KK) became in. Mine.
It appears to me that the occurrence of genius aud idiocy in largo families merely
indicates a wide rang>3 of variation iu such families ; we get, therefore, a wider range of
mental capacity without any groat difference in the average. Genius, on thirt view,
though occurring in the same family with idiocy, would be at the opposite polo of mental
capacity, ami it would be illogical to assume that there was any affinity between them.

Mr. Ilavelock Ellis has evidently expended an enormous amount of painstaking
labour on this work. It is only a preliminary sketch of the whole of the material lie
has collected, and it is to be hoped that he will soon present us with a more elaborate
exposition of this interesting subject. J. (1 HAY.

TcT7~

Nos. 40-41.] MAN. [1904.

Buddhism.

Buddhism : An Illustrated Quarterly Review. Vol. I., No. 2, December, m ft
1903. Rangoon: The International Buddhist Society, 1903. 24 X 16 cm. *HJ
Price 2 rupees (3*.).

This review is an interesting result of the mutual interaction of East and West. In
it are found articles by European scholars, which, bring the light of modern research to
bear upon the writings and doctrines of Buddhism, and others by Burmese Buddhists
who have been influenced by the results of Western enquiry.

The article of greatest interest to non-specialists is that by the editor, Bhikkhu
Anauda Metteya, on the recognition by the British Government of the appointment of
the Thathanabaing or Patriarch of Burmese Buddhism, sometimes spoken of as the
Burmese Archbishop. This statesmanlike act of Lord Curzon has evidently been
received with the greatest enthusiasm by the population of Burma, and an extremely
interesting account is given of the circumstances which led to the election, and the
promulgation of the Sanad by Sir Hugh Barnes, the Lieutenant-Governor, at a durbar
attended by all the leading men of the province and hundreds of yellow-clad monks.
Such a ceremony may be taken as a demonstration that the British Government is not,
as some think, devoid of sympathy with the desires and aspirations of the races gathered
within the fold of the Indian empire.

To anthropologists, and students of folklore in particular, the account given of the
legend of Upagutta in an article by Maung Kin is of the greatest interest. It is clearly
of non-Buddhist origin, and is reprobated by the learned iu the faith, but is believed in
by the mass of the people. In the contest between Upagutta and the wicked Mara we
may recognise one of the origins of the widely-spread tale of the struggle between the
good and evil magicians who go through a series of transformations.

Professor Rbys Davids, in his article on Pali and Sanskrit texts, brings forward his
views on Sanskrit and Prakrit, which he has dealt with more fully in his recent volume
on Buddhist India. Although Sanskrit scholars, as a body, are by no means converted,
it cannot be denied that Professor Rhys Davids makes out a verv good case for his
theory that Sanskrit ceased to be a spoken language before the period to which the
earliest Buddhist inscriptions (in Prakrit) belong, and that the classical Sanskrit of
Inter times was never, iu the true sense of the words, a spoken language ; that is, that it
was never the mother- tongue of any part of northern Iudia, but ouly the language of the
learned, like Latin in the Middle Ages, a positiou it has maintained without a break up to
the present day, while the modern dialects derived from the Prakrits have gone on side
by side with it as the real languages of the people.

In "Transmigration" Ananda Metteya makes a very interesting attempt to
reconcile the Buddhist doctrine of transmigration with the teaching of modern science.
Other articles deserving of notice are '* The Bo-ta-taung Paya," by E. H. Seppings, and
" In the Shadow of Shwe Dagou," by Anauda Metteya, which describes the training of
a Buddhist novice.

Buddhism deserves success. Not only are its contents excellent, but it is well got
up, printed and illustrated, and is a credit to the place of its production.

M. LONGWORTH DAMES.

Rome : Archaeology. Burton-Brown.

Recent Excavations in the Roman Forum, 1898-1904: A Handbook by m +
E. Burton-Brown, with a preface by Commendatore Boni, director of the excava- ^T I
tions. London: Murray, 1904. Pp. xvi -f 224. With nine photographic illustrations
aud four plans. 16 x 10 cm. Price 3*. 6d.

Mrs. Burton-Brown's very useful little book supplies a need that must have been
felt by all English visitors to the Forum in the last few years who have not been

[ 62 ]

1904.] MAN. [Wo. 41.

privileged to have the guidance of the excavators themselves, Hitherto the results of
Commendatore Boni's systematic excavations have been accessible to students mainly
through the tardy pages of the Notizie degli Scavi which, apart from their cost, are
unwieldy and obscured by a mass of detail. A shorter Italian account by L. Vaglieri,
Gh Scavi Recenti ncl Foro Romano, gives a rSsumi which is useful on the spot, whilst
the pamphlet of Dr. Chr. Hulsen, Die Ausgrabungen auf dein Forum Romanum, 1898 -
1902 (reprinted from the Mittheilungenof the German Iustitute in Rome, 1902), contains
many valuable suggestions and criticisms of the work up to that date. But, with the
exception of Mr. Rushforth's exhaustive paper on S. Maria Antiqua in the Papers of
the British School at Rome, 1902, there was no trustworthy account in English of all
the great discoveries that have been yielded in the last six years by a site which is,
perhaps, the most interesting in Europe

Mrs. Burton-Brown has very wisely made her volume of a portable size, so that
those who are interested in the newly-found remaius can read their history on the spot.
She has also given a slight sketch of the monuments already prominent, so that with
her book in his hand the traveller need not be at a loss for the name and function of any
of the shattered buildings that he will see within this wonderful enclosure. The accom-
panying plans have the merit of exceeding simplicity ; all the confusing detail necessary
for the archaeological specialist — for whom the book is not intended — is wisely omitted
and only the essentials given with a clearness and accuracy that is admirable.

The book is divided into thirteen chapters dealing respectively with the Forum in
general, the fountain of Juturna, the JEdes Vestas, the Atrium Vestalium, the Regia,
the Area of Vulcan, the Comitium, the Black Stone, the Rostra, the Forum under Julius
Cresar, the Primitive Tombs, the Sacra Via, and the church of S. Maria Antiqua.
There is also a useful explanatory note on Roman methods of building, an appendix
giving a short bibliography, and a table of classical references illustrating the text, the
last -named a very valuable adjunct.

Although much of the matter dealt with is controversial, Mrs. Burton-Brown has
succeeded in putting the main points at issue very clearly before the reader, at the same
time explaining mythological references, &c, where necessary. Hence it will be possible
for a visitor to form for himself some opinion of the value and importance of those
remains which without adequate guidance he might pass over as insignificant.

To criticise a few points in detail, it. may be noticed that many interesting parallels
are drawn between early Roman and Athenian institutions, showing the similarity of
many points in the two civilisations. But it is well to remember that the Dioscuri
(p. 14) are not native Roman gods, but imported from Greece via* Etruria ; probably
Postumius deliberately propitiated his enemies' gods in the war with Tusculum, and,
gaining the victory, gratefully introduced their worship into Rome.

Jn discussing the fountain of Juturna (p. 22) and the many vicissitudes it underwent
it might have been well to mention that, though deeply buried in the Middle Ages, it
never ceased to flow, and occasionally caused chasms to appear in the ground, so that
the spot earned for itself the name of "The Hell " (Lanciani, Ruins and Excavations,
p. 125).

The octagonal foundation iu the Atrium Vest® (p. 46) is of fourth -century brickwork,
and it was suggested in 1902 that it may have been erected by the vestals to enshrine
the statue of Vesta from the Paiatiue temple when heathen worship was stopped by the
edict of Gratian.

The circular fountain mentioned on p. 87 shows signs of having been brought from
elsewhere and carelessly reset, not accordiug to the numbering of the slabs.

Mrs. Burton-Brown accepts the theory of Boni, that the arched building discovered
between the site of the arch of Tiberius and that of Septimius Severus represents the
rostra of Cajsar (p. 113). That the masonry is of the first century B.C. seems fairly

L 63 ]

Nos, 41-43.] MAN. [1904.

•certain, but it is difficult to believe that this humble building with its low niches paved
with broken brick, so soon masked at one end by the arch of Tiberius, is really the
rostra of the period, unless it has lost some perishable facing, such as a veneer of marble
stucco.

It is interesting to notice in connection with the so-called " pozzi rituali " (p. 125)
that there has recently been discovered a similar pit beneath the base of the equestrian
statue of Domitian, clearly giving evidence of the inauguration of the monument, and
proving by the simplicity and archaic type of the pottery which it contained the con-
servatism of religious ritual at Rome (vide Morning Post for March 17, 1904). Similar
sacred pits seem to be also characteristic of Athenian religion (£. A. Gardner, Ancient
Athens, j>. 426).

Perhaps a little more might have been said about the " strong rooms " in the base
of the Temple of Castor (p. 136), of which Richter gives an interesting accouut
(Topographie, p. 88, cf. Jahrbuch des k. d. arch. Instituts y 1898).

In the description of the curious " prisons " — if prisons they are — beueath the wing
of the Heroon Romuli (p. 166), it is surely misleading to speak of "flint concrete."
Speaking from memory, the extraordinarily hard mass of rubble which I saw being cut
laboriously away from these rooms was of lumps of lava (selce) from broken -up paving
Hocks set in the firmest pozzolana concrete.

It should also be observed that on the external wall of the Chapel of the Forty
Martyrs (p. 189) were painted the same figures of Fathers, with the same quotations
f from their works, as on the wall flanking the apse of- the church itself (p. 205). The
identification of these quotation? is given at leugth in Mr. Rushforth's paper.

A few errors might be corrected, e.g., p. 17, Curculius should be Curculio ; p. 23,
Kallirhoc is the more usual spelling ; p. 82, the date of Guiscard's sack of Rome is
1084, not 1048 ; p. Ill, Volsces might with advantage be altered to Vohci or
Volscians ; page 185, surely Kyriakon (icvptaicdv) ; p. 190, ante-chamber, not anti-.

A word must be said about the preface. Commendatore Boni's kindness to students
is well known to all who have come into contact with him, and it adds not a little to the
value of this book that he has, iu a prefatory note to it, expressed in English the aims
of that great work which he is so ably carrying on, and which has already yielded such
strikiug results. " C. H. BLAKISTON.

Tibet. Bishop.

Among the Tibetans. By Isabella L. Bishop, F.R.G.S. Loudon : Religious m j%
Tract Society, 1904. Pp. 159. 18 X 12 cm. Price 1*. 6d. *tL

At a time when Tibet is very much in the public notice, this cheap edition of
Mrs. Bishop's book on the inhabitants of that mysterious region is particularly opportune,
although the part of the country she visited was far removed from Lhasa, beiug, in fact,
the Imbra valleys and the country round Leh, on the Kashmir border. Consequently
the people she saw and mingled with are by no means strangers to the European.
Mrs. Bishop spent four months in the country, and in this little book gives a very
readable account of her experiences. Anthropologically the book is of little value,
although there is a brief chapter on manners aud customs, to a great extent, uufortunately,
at second hand, but as a popular account of a fascinating and little knowu people it has
considerable merit. Mrs. Bishop is never dull, aud tells cf her experiences iu a pleasaut
and chatty manner. She is particularly good in her descriptions of sceuery and of the
beauties of the country. A very interesting account is given of her visit to a Lama
monastery aud temples.

The book is illustrated by pencil sketches made by the author. These are of unequal
merit, but possibly have lost somewhat iu the reproduction. We cannot help feeling that
a few good photographs would have been more satisfactory if less nrtinic. H. S. K.

Printed by Kyke and 8potti&\voodk, Hir Mmesiv's t'riuterF, Lasi Harding Mreet, K.C.

Plate E,

Man, 1904,

FtG, I. — COLONNADE, SHOWING RELATION TO TEMPLE
OF HATSBIPStl

FlG. 2.— PILLAR WITH CARTOUCHE OF MEXTUHETRP
NEBKHEKURA.

FlG. 3,— EXCAVATION OF COLONNADE AND PLATFORM. FlG. 4.— GRANITE THRESHOLD AND HYPOSTYLB HALL.

FlG. 5, — ELEVENTH DYNASTY WALL.

Fig. 6, — the granite threshold.

AN ELEVENTH DYNASTY TEMPLE AT DEIR EL-BAHARL

1901]

MAN,

[No. 43.

ORIGINAL ARTICLES.
Egrypt: Deir el-Bahari. With Plate E, Hall,

Discovery of an Xlth Dynasty Temple at Deir el-Bahari, Egypt. m q
Put tL & I tall, M.A. *t0

evations of tli' tair el-Bubari, can tiring

the i m under the direction of IV SariHe, assisted by myself, have resulted

in the discovery of the oldest temple at I of the oldest

temples hi Kl!'\ |H. It ia the funerary temple of the Pharaoh Meatohetep Ncbkherura,
of the Xlth circa ml 2500. Most of tli» pillars fri

veral of those of the hypostyle ball are Mill in place, and iu one place
SOIft njil Xlth Dynasty coloured reliefs are faf, A temple of the

early Middle Empire, ami one as well preserved as this, is a rarity.

lay tuuier the heaps of debris immediately to the south of the great
h. lit ■• l-Haliari temple (XVlIIth Dynasty, B.C. 1500). These heaps of d&rii are not
merel\ tbe w l rubbish heaps left by former explorer* of the main temple; tl

are merely en the surface. Beneath them is aie-i» rat dtbru July not been

time, and beneath this, el iug from 8 to 20

were found the pillars of the colonnade and hall. The pillars of the colonnade have not
Keen seen possibly lifUM the Ramcssidc period, when, as Seems pcobable at present, the
Xlth Dj tuple was overthrown. Vet it had been known tor D tore

the I tecovery of tlie temple that some building nf Meoiobetep had existed sonn -

'■■ir el-Hahavi, because both M, Marietta and MM . and E. B

had found Blabs with the name of this king in the vicinity of the main temple ;
but the situation of this building and its character, were unknown till the ex
of tli!- season. A gt IS and one or two fragm {One! OOlfl

v in the extreme tonthert] earner of the drqut of
iri, at the mouth of a tomb excavated many years ago by Lord l)utl
had been conjectured to belong to the uuknowu building of Mentuhetop, and the pvl
excavations ns I Ihffl '<> be correct; they Jin- pillars from the hypostyle hail.

lh< main portion temple is built upon an artificially -squared platform of

I from the wall of the Harbor-shrine of the main temple by an open court
aboill UK) feet across. Two sides of the platform have been uncovered during thih
season's work, revealing a facing wall of fiae white limestone blocks, measuring some-
time by nearly 4 feet, sci in bonded one large, one small, one large* one
I, .hi q fottndaHon <>t great sandstone blocks •> feet across and I foot high. The

oitifully tine, and the stonework can be placed among the best in Bgypt.
1 1 h typical Middle Kingdom work (Plate E., Fie

In front of the western face of the platform (the temple is oriented in the tame *ey
SI the greet temple, the latter having beeu built parallel to it) is a colonnade, originally
twenty-four square columns, each about 2 feet square ami aVool I I Eeef i r ■
hrejlii arranged la two rows of twelve each. One of these rows is perfect in number
of column*, but all the columns are broken off at heights varying from 4 to 7 Ism
tie ground. Kaeh bear- the cartouches MrrttuJictrp and Ncbkherura alternately, and
the ka-u;iUM 3*Wh>TQW (Flats BL f FJgi 2). The pavement OS which the colonnade
stands is perfectly preserved , as may )*e seen froni the accompanying photograph
(Plat . 1).

The facing wall of the Oolomiadc rae originally OOVered with reliefs, of which

a fragment, r» <g a pros n< titU* The i tS facing

wall has here been entirely rem ore. The pillars hear

XlXth Dynasty graffiti, wind, shows that at that time the building was falling into

tlOD took place prol

-, ]

No. 43.] MAN. [1904.

At the end of the colonnade is the ramp, leading up to the top of the platform
15 to 18 feet above the colonnade. This ramp is not jet uncovered. It goes up to a
door-threshold of splendidly polished red granite, in situ (Plate E., Fig. 6), one of the
finest things found. Of the remains of the gate itself, which was probably a red granite
trilithon, like that, still existing, of the main temple, nothing has yet been found. This
gate probably marks the centre of the hypostyle hall of octagonal columns on to which
it opens (Plate E., Fig. 4). These columns are small and thin, their circular bases
measuring 4 feet across ; the intercolumniations are very small, measuring only about
7 feet from centre to centre. The best preserved of those in position is 9 feet high.
This bears the cartouche of Mentuhetep on the western face, as did all the rest originally.
On one the label of a Barneses has also been cut. These columns, like those of the
colonnade, are of a dark grey sandstone, with a white colour-wash over them ; the
hieroglyphs are painted sometimes blue, sometimes yellow.

Of the walls of the hypostyle hall only the two lowest courses of fine limestone blocks
remain at any point. These walls were originally decorated with coloured reliefs, of which
many fragments were found. They are of two or three different styles, varying greatly
in merit, some fulfilling our traditional idea of the rude work of the Xlth Dynasty,
while others are of very fine work, like the best Xllth Dynasty, Tha latter may well
be the work of the famous sculptor Mertisen, who flourished in the reign of Nebkherura.
The subjects are those appropriate to the funerary chapel of a king ; scenes relating to his
coronation, processions of warriors and magnates, among whom the captain Kheti and
the judge Beza seem to have been among the most prominent, scenes of boat-buildiug
and cattle-numbering, &c. From the smashed condition of these reliefs, none of which
have as yet been found in situ, it is evident that the temple was at some period purposely
overthrown and broken up, aud the fact that a large number of wooden mallets, wedges,
and levers, as well as a fine copper chisel with hardened edge, were found among the
debris, confirms this conclusion. They are the lost or thrown away tools of the
Ramesside workmen who broke up the temple.

A number of fragments of statues and stelae were found, some of which show that
the King Nebkherura was worshipped here as a tutelary deity of Deir el-Bahari in
conjunction with Amen-Ra. On one battered figure, of the later Middle Kingdom,
is an inscription containing adorations to the Sun-god and mentioning the land of Punt.
I thought at first that it also contaiued a mention of the Hyksos King (?) Aapehti, to
whose period it belongs, but further examination of it has convinced me that this is
uncertain. In the court was found a rubbish deposit containing a great uumber of
objects of blue faience, beads, scarabs, fragments of blue bowls and cups, &c, some
of which were obviously votive offerings from the Hathor-shrine in the main temple,
thrown down into the court by the priests when the sanctuary became too full.
They vary in date from the Xllth to the XXXth Dynasty, the major portion being of
the XVIIIth.

The excavation of the Xlth Dynasty temple is now about half completed : when
finished its grouud-plan will be of the highest interest to students of Egyptian archi-
tecture. One thing is already clear, that the main idea of the great temple of Deir
el-Bahari, which Senmut built for Hatshepsut, with its terraces and colonnades, is taken,
not from the u terraced hills " of Punt or Somaliland, but simply from the older temple
to the south, in which we have the prototype of the great temple, with its terrace,
colonnade, and ramp, on a small scale. Only the arrangements on top of the platform
are different in the two temples. Hatshepsut's temple was then in the time of the
XVIIIth Dynasty a magnificent piece of archaism. H. R. HALL.

[ CG ]

1904.] MAN. [ffo. 44.

Totemism. Lang.

A Theory of Arunta Totem ism. By Andrew Lang. m m

Messrs. Spencer and Gillen have shown that totemism, among the Arunta and ^T
their neighbours towards the north, is highly peculiar. The totem is not, as elsewhere,
hereditary, either in the male or female line ; men aud women of the same totem
may marry, contrary to universal law elsewhere, children derive their totems from the
local ghosts (who haunt the Oknanikilla or spots where the ancestors of the " dream
time" "went underground ") near the supposed place of each child's conception. Such
Oknanikilla (ghostly local totem centres marked by rocks or trees) are scattered all
about the country.

Thus totems do not, as elsewhere, mark any exogamous limit. Exogamy is
determined by each person's "matrimouial class, 11 and the class depends on that of
each child's father. Among the living, as among the dead, totems are local, the people
at one place may be almost all cats, or emus, or grubs, and so on.

Thus the Arunta totems have no importance in social law, they come to the front
chiefly at Intichiuma, where men of a totem work magic for the purpose of its increase
as part of the tribal food supply.

It has been suggested by Mr. Spencer and Mr. J. G. Frazer that, perhaps, the
Arunta may be the original or oldest extaut form of totemism. Originally totem groups
may have merely been co-operative magical societies, with no bearing on marriage law.
In other places the totems only became exogamous after an exogamous bi-section of
the horde was made, and when no totem was allowed to occur in both exogamous
divisions — " primary classes " or " phratries." The Arunta did not thus arrange their
totems,- all other men did, therefore the Arunta totems alone are not exogamous.*

The objections to this view are patent. The "primitive" type of Australian
tribe, in Mr. Howitt's opiuion, has two phratries, with the arrangement that no totem
kin occurs in both. "Matrimonial classes," the primitive type has none, and descent is
reckoned in the female line. The Arunta reckon in the male line, and have no known
phratries, only four or eight opposed sets of " matrimonial classes." Totems, thanks to
the Arunta method of obtaining them by the accident of locality, are not confined to either
opposed set of exogamous classes, and, therefore, are not exogamous. Now, local
totemism is the necessary result of reckoning in the male line, it can have no other
cause, and such reckoning cannot be primitive ; therefore, Arunta totemism is not
primitive. But let us observe that among the Arunta reckoning in the male line must
be very old. Their myths allow for no other mode of reckouing, even in the " Dream
time " — the Alcheringa. This is obvious, because the wandering ancestors in the myths
are always vagrant groups, setting out from a local totem centre, while in each case all
the members are of one totem. This can only occur, in fact, under a system of reckoning
in the male Hue. Given three brothers, all emus, their children, whatever the totems of
their mothers may be, are all emus also. Thus, even now, most members of an Arunta
local group are all of one totem.f

Yet this is a very extraordinary fact, because to-day the Arunta do not inherit
totems from their fathers. Thus the prevalence of local totemism to-day can only be
accounted for by one explanation. Each group must wander in search of food in an
area where the Okuanikilla, or ghostly local totem centres, are mainly all of one totem,
which communicates itself to the children.

At Alice Springs, where the natives are almost exclusively Grubs by totem, they
must have been conceived, almost exclusively, at places where their ancestors of the
then local totem Grub " went under ground." No other explanation is conceivable.
Therefore, the Arunta hold, rightly or wrongly, that even in the dream time their

* Se^ Mr. Spencer io Journ. Anthr. Inst., XXVIII., 275-80 ; Mr. Frazer, 281-86.
t Xa tires of Central Australia, p. 9.

[ 67 ]

No. 44.] MAN. [1904.

mythical ancestors were in local totem groups, which, again, can now only he the result
of reckoning in the male line, which is not primitive.

At each Oknanikilla the ghosts of men of the dream-time, who lived in local totem
centres, u went under ground M — practically, were buried. Their ghosts specially haunt
the churinga, or stone amulets, engraved with totem ic devices, which are found on the
spot. When a child is born, the churiuga that was his in a previous stage of existence
is hunted for, and is sometimes found. Mr. Spencer supposes that an old man pur-
posely drops a churinga on the spot, but he knows natives who have actually found
them.* If they cannot find a stone churinga they make one — of wood. It does not
seem to me that it would be easy to drop an old stone churinga, " and the same with
intent to deceive," because each stone churinga has its known owner in the tribe,
and all are kept in sacred hiding places, Ertnatulunga, aud are frequently taken out,
rubbed with ochre, carefully reviewed, and used for magical rites.

It is plain that the people, the supposed ancestors, who dropped the stone churinga
all over the place, did not, as now the Arunta do, regulate the descent of these articles,
when an owner died or a totem group became extinct, by the present well-organised
system of inheritance. Each churinga now is carefully conveyed to its proper legal
Ertnatulunga. Clearly this was not the rule in the dream time. Nothing is said to that
effect in the myths, as reported ; the mythical ancestors merely dropped their churinga
where they went under ground. No longer are they thus dropped, they are carefully
guarded, but the myth has to take the shape that they were dropped of old, because
the churinga are found, near the Nanja, or spirit trees, of the dead ancestors.

Thus, the Ertnatulunga, the sacred places where churinga are kept, are a relatively
later institution.

In themselves the churinga are but inscribed stone amulets, of a class familiar to
American and Portuguese archaeologists, and not unkuowu in Scotland. My conjecture
is that the Arunta, having found these objects in old local totem centres, mythically
cemeteries, have imagined that the amulets are specially haunted by old local totemic
ghosts of ancestors, and on that belief have based their actual and most peculiar theory
of re-iucaruatiou of the said local totem ghosts, and also their own practice of thiib
locally inheriting the totem in association with the haunted churinga.

For we must remark, that eliminating the churinga belief, the Arunta system of
totemism is nothing at all but the familiar and confessedly secondary system of totemism
with descent in the male line, aud, consequently, with local totem centres as at
present. It is the churinga belief, and nothing else, that has made it possible for the
same totem to appear in both opposed sets of matrimonial classes, so that a kangaroo
may marry a kangaroo, by totem, so long as she is in the matrimonial class, not his own
into which he must marry. The totemic spirit " deliberately chooses to go into a
" Kumara instead of a Bukhara woman, so the natives say " — that is, into a woman of
the wrong class — write Messrs. Spencer and Gillen.f Even now, the great majority
of members of each totem still belong to one of the two exogamous moieties of the tribe,
what we call phratries in tribes of primitive type.J

Now totems among the Arunta would be exogamous, as elsewhere, if, as elsewhere,
each totem belonged entirely to one only of the exogamous moieties, or sets of matri-
monial classes. But the churinga belief enables a person to belong to a class which is
not that of his Alcheringa ancestor. § Therefore it is plain that the churinga belief
causes the Arunta abnormality : the totems are not exogamous. Messrs. Spencer and
Gillen themselves say : " It seems as if in the central Australian tribes the totemic system
" has undergone a somewhat curious developmental

* Natives of Central AmtraUa, p. 132. f iVitfir* Tribe* y p. 125.

X Op. c'tt., 125 ; for examples see pp. 169, 189.
§ Op. tit, p. 125. || Op. cit., p. 211.

[ 68 ]

1904.] MAN. [Nos. 44 45.

That is precisely my own argument. The system of the Arunta hud, quite
normally, reached the stage of totem ism with local totem centres, due to reckoning in
the male line. At this point arose the churinga belief, which causes the abnormality.
That very peculiar and unusual belief is due to speculation about the stone churinga
found at Nanja — trees or rocks believed to mark the burial places, practically, of
ancestors. Excavations might elucidate that point though the churinga are not dug up,
they are " surface-finds." The belief cannot and does not arise in places where totem -
marked stone churinga are unknown. In all probability the marks— concentric circles,
half circles, and other archaic ornaments— familiar in European sites, palaeolithic or
neolithic, had originally no totemic significance. That is only the explauation given by
the myth.

If these elucidations be deemed probable, they merely fall into line with the regular
evolution of totemism. " All abuormal instances," writes Mr. Howitt, " I have fouud to
" be connected with changes in the line of descent. The primitive and complete
" forms" (of totemism) "have uterine descent, and it is in cases where descent is
" counted in the male line that I find the most abnormal forms to occur." *

Of all forms the Arunta is the most abnormal, and the abnormality is due to the
churinga belief, arising in a society where, already, reckoning in the male line prevailed.
The Intichiuma, or totemic magic rites, are not found, to my kuow ledge, amoug tribes
with phra tries and female descent, except amoug tribes which are near neighbours of
the Arunta, such as the Urabunna and Dieri, and, in these cases, may be explained by
borrowing, which is demonstrably very active in Australia.

If there is right reason in these remarks, we need not look for the origin of
totemism among the peculiar practices of the Arunta, with their absence of phratries,
their numerous matrimonial classes, their totem local centres, their inheritance of office
and class in the male liue, and their peculiar churinga superstition, itself based on a myth
accounting for the discovery of stone amulets near burial places, real or supposed.

It cannot be denied that Arunta totemism, save for the churinga superstition, is
only ordinary totemism with reckoning in the male line. I may err in guessing at the
origin of the churinga superstition, but, undeniably, it can only exist where stone
amulets exist, and is a consequence, not the cause of their existence. And it would
not have existed if the preseut customs of sacred treasure house**, Ertnatulunga, and
definite inheritance of the churinga of the dead, had always, from the first, beeu observed.
I do not mean that belief in the reincarnation of ancestral spirits is peculiar to the Arunta,
of course, but that the association of the belief with the stone amulets found at Oknanikilla
is the only cause of the non-exogamous character of Aruuta totems.

ANDREW LANG.

Fiji. Allardyce.

The Fijians in Peace and War. Being an Abstract of a Lecture de- *P
firered before the Anthropological Institute on February 23, 1904, by the Hon. w%3
/F. L. Allardyce, C.M.G.

According to the native tradition Fiji was peopled by immigration. Three brothers
landed at Vunda on the north-west coast of Viti-Levu, and after living there for a short
time went up into the hills. Here the eldest brother became ill, and calling his people
to him, bent them out to colonise the other islands of the group, which iu this way
received their population. It is interesting to note that the word 4fc Vunda " means
u our origin." The tradition of au origin from the north-west receives further confirma-
tion from the belief current eoneerning the spirits of the departed. Across Viti-Levu
run* a spirit path called by the natives Sala ni ya!o, along which travel the ghosts of
the dead, until, niutr many adventures, they reach Vunda, whence the ghosts plunge

• U'pvrt of BsgtHi* of the Smithsonian InMUmtion, 1883, |». 801.

No. 45.]

MAN.

[1904.

iuto the ocean and finallyfriiut it io the home of their an jiatlfl OQ \

Levu further regard tbems e people, but ?>> «tmon st-

ated
salutation «

frequently passes be
i mitt v.

rrau-
long
distances apu

i he J Meet — Kai Vu nS

-^ Xouof my foun-
dation h )« In spit
this belief, I jos
physical type through-
out the group i

i rid a eer-

tain admixture of Poly-

;i blood and culture

appeal! to have taken

place, particularly in the

: n portion of the

group. In Viti-Lrvn and Vanua Lcvu the Melunesinn dominates, but further east may
l>e met individuals with longer liair, which shows a tendency to bang over, a lighter skin,
and more refined i In the

inland parts the houses are conical
in shape, with a centre post and

;i tingle door, and covered with a
shag -it j on the ooaal iliey

are oblong with an angled roof
supported by a projecting ridge-
pole (Fig. 1). The latter, in the
case of the dwellings of chiefs, is
ornamented at the etids with
DOWrieBi In the so nth -east are
Found houses with rounded end*,
a sure Sign of Polynesian in-
line nee. Ill* chief's house is a
large erection, divided by a par-
tition iuto two portions,
which serves as the chiefs private
apartments, and the other as the
common moating plaee of the

village. On this partition are
fastened various official doetttto
relating to matters a wait in

the chief, phi red V#b(
they will catch his eye when,
he enters bis private dwelling
The bouse is btiill by
the united effortaof the villagers, and in return the chief baa to si > the builders

are prop rise remunerated. House*bnildlog ia on thi aunal

principle, a division of the Iribe being responsible for n section*

L 70 ]

I it;. 2. — IS i KfitOR "i • in l.i - 1 ML

1904,]

MAN.

[No. 45.

I b( veral kind- used on the

i bringing produce down t<> the e i roads >r in

many ca s e s followed the heights, and were thi for transport. For

irJng there is a cm i which is k. . and a large

trian This form of 1 1 sail very slot wind, bill mil

deal of red with an oar. [q the old 'i i the

>f two canoes connected by ■ platform, with a

the attention of two
men.

the industries of the Fijiana the mosl important phically is tb<

y, an art which la practised Lu a few oub ms, Next to

of formality and l. and in thin

connection the Fijian* observe i Technically the

owner of the a the Cava u drank has je of taking the Bret

k, hut in pna v wain _ht in favooi of the bight

present Attn ihe chief

his bencb

nivaji the

rlgbl of

drinking, thru the ohief
then J 1 1 =-*
Matauivamia, and -

The oat&vea have
dances, which they per-
reriona "

; in One Of tl

the -pear dance, the
performers a p p
swathed in mauj folda
of ba • much of

which is renio?ed and
uteri to the on-

look

War was common in the old days between the many chiefs and their respective
retaiti jrs< Before the commencement of operations the aneei always

raited* Fighting took the form mainly of ambuscade* and desultory skirmishing in
the hush ; en its in the op rate* The Fijian attitude towards war is

well seen in the I apler, which may be translated : —

♦* p Tii Dei tain death to brai
Tis hut a feel to join the rout
In t8M tWO I eaten in Vanua Levu, and the lecturer

country \% i t f i some of the native eonstabolai est the pc the

fllC follow

place, The ; rr> the front, am him

shouted, "Do yon set an ? row attendee will to-morrow.* 1 Be retired, and another

"I am the folio id; I am the south-eu-t trade; I

wilt tore me. M Then aootn aud musket, the I

ground with the wot.!-. M the ohtb tn but not

i the locality refased to deliver up theerfmii
iri on a hdl, surrounded on three si
and on the lonth bj tl e, from which

[ 71 ]

No. 45.] MAN. [1904.

floated long streamers of white native cloth, and fortified with large branches of orange
trees. The fort was stormed, captured, and burnt. Among the objects found in the
village were some " mbotha." These mbotha are memorials of slain warriors. It was
formerly the custom when a man was killed in war to wrap his head or waist cloth
round his spear and keep it in memory of him. The custom has long been obsolete, and
consequently the mbotha are very rare.

With regard to the fire- walking ceremony, which is performed only on the island
of Beqa and by the members of a particular tribe, the following legend is told of its
origin. In the old days in the village of Navaikaisese lived an old storyteller of the
name of Dredre. It was the custom to gather on certain days in a house and listen to
the legends he used to relate and to reward his services with a present. A certain man
named Tui Qalita was informed that he would be expected to provide the reward on
the next occasion, so he took his digging-stick and went to a spring where he knew was
a large eel. He dug and dug but found nothing, until at last he felt a hand at the
bottom of the excavatiou ; further efforts disclosed an arm, then a head, and finally he
pulled out a man, who immediately begged the finder to spare his life. Tui Qalita
refused, meaning to serve up his captive as a present for Dredre. The following
dialogue then took place : —

u Spare me and I will be your god of war."

" That is no good to me ; my troops are always victorious."

" I will be your god of property."

"I always import my cloth."

" Your tiqa god." (Tiqa is a game played with a weighted stick.)

" My tiqa-stick flies always far beyond the rest."

" Your god of women."

" Heaven forfend ! No ; you must be my present to Dredre."

Tui Qalita then asked his name, and he replied, " Tui Namoliwai, and my home is
«* the home from which you have unearthed me. Permit me once again to speak, sir.
" Hereafter you people of Sawau shall bake Masawe (Dracaena). Let you and me be
" baked together with it for four nights. This power I will confer on you."

After much persuasion Tui Qalita at last consented ; both emerged from the oven
unharmed, and Tui Namoliwai conferred the privilege of immunity from fire on Tui
Qalita's descendants for ever.

The ceremony which is supposed to commemorate this event is conducted as
follows : — A circular pit is dug, 3 feet deep and 30 feet across ; this is filled with
alternate layers of timber and stones. The pile is kindled and burns for about twelve
hours, when the embers are removed by means of non-combustible vines, and the red-hot
stones are levelled by means of levers made from similar materials. The twelve or
fourteen members of the privileged tribe come forward and walk round and through the
oven on the stones. The heat of the latter is considerable ; a handkerchief laid ou one
of the stones was cnarred, and a thermometer suspeuded over the centre of the oven
registered 280 deg. Fahr., when the solder melted. Mr. Allardyce examiued the feet
of the performers both before and after the ceremony, and was convinced that no
preparation of any kind was rubbed ou them. No signs of burning were discovered, and
even the hair on the leg was not singed. The length of time occupied by this part
of .the ceremony is not more than a minute; the performers walk quite slowly. After
this leaves and Masawe are thrown on the stones, and the latter baked and eaten.

As a partial explanation of this appareut immunity from fire the lecturer mentioned
the fact that the village faces north-west, and is consequently sheltered from the
prevailing wind (the S.E. trade), while it is exposed to the full heat of the sun. The
natives are accustomed to walk about barefoot on the rocks when the latter are at such
a temperature that an Europeau canuot keep his hand on them, and in this way the

[ 72 ]

1904.]

MAN.

[No*. W-46.

soles of the feet become hardened. Doubtless the iutenso faith of the performers also
contributes to their security.

[As an instance of the amount of heat which the foot, oven of an European, will
stand, I may mention that I have seen a cadet in the merchant norvioo, who had been
accustomed to walk about the deck bare-foot, hold a lighted wax match under hU heel
with the flame licking the skin until burnt out. Ho assured me that he felt uo luoou-
venience from the heat, and cortaiuly no signs of burning appeared on the skin. — Kl>,]

Easter Island. Edge-Partington.

A "Domestic Idol" ftom Easier Island (Rapa-nul). tty «A Edge* mj*
Partington. xO

I have lately acquired one of the so-called u domestic idols'* of Easter Island, which
differs somewhat from those in the British Museum, figured in the Ethmgraphfonl Album
(Plate 2). It is carved out of a
naturally bent piece of Toro-miro
or Edwardsia, a species of mimosa,
and represents a male human
figure with the head and tail of a
lizard. The eyes are represented
by an inlay of bone and obsidian.
In nearly all these " idols " repre-
senting human forms the arms, are
placed at the sides, but in this
case they are drawn up and
represented in very low relief on
the underside of the chest and
head ; from this it would appear
that the intention of the crafts-
man was to emphasise the lizard-
like rather than the human aspect
<rf the figure. This specimen re-
sembles those of purely human
form in having the ribs and back-
booe strongly defined, and over
the lumbar region is carved the
ring common to th?m all. The
Fp'fue at its base spreads out into
a fan-shaped end partly covering
tfte buttocks, frtHD which ex-
tends a long taperinir tail, lying
in the Loilow form**} by the
closed leg*'- The baekboue is
piereed at tbret diflerent points
for su*peusiou.

Jdr. JLiutvu .Pa-liuer b*\*> that tbeae images were kept in gra*s bout**, either iu
niche** ot «u*peiiued ftoiu t.h* tid#e-pvle- and were carefully wrapped up in native clotb or
Utpa * Lit. unit J'Ld. Kw .. /spoof. J*73j„ but were not worshipped (Jo*r*, fi&f. (J* v.
ton*.. JSL., y. \*0j. PawuabU-r 'J h«nu*»on iu $milkw*ua# Report. \HW. p. 5#4, speaks
ul iiieM: tigure*- a*- iuuU* tv i«?pfe*»etit deceased ebiefs a,nd persons of note, and «tate* that
tn«*v *»**, ^»\*3i. a pia<;«, at leant* and »*jreujouie*^ Tiik. probably,, would ouly apply to

*i*

Nob. 46*48.]

MAN.

[1904.

those of human form. Mr. Linton Palmer suggests that they may have been used for
divining purposes (loc. cit. y p. 16), and quotes similar customs in New Zealand as
noted by Sir George Grey in Polynesian Mythology.

On the heads -of the male human figure are generally found carved in low relief
representations of birds, &c. It will be noticed that in the figure before us there is what
looks like a totemic mark on the under jaw of the lizard. J. EDGE-PARTINGTON.

Edge-Partington.

Figures. By J.

China.

Tien-tsln Mud

Edge-Parting ton .

Among the most friable of China's art
manufactures are the sun-dried mud figures of
Tien-tsin. Out of the number I brought home
with me in 1880, the one figured here is the
only one that remains, owing to the fact that it
was kept under glass ; the rest crumbled away
from exposure to the air. It is 8'3 inches in
height and represents a very old man with white
hair, which from all appearances has been fixed
in the soft mud previous to drying ; that he is a
man of substance is shown by the length of his
nails. Considering \he high artistic quality of this
manufacture, it is remarkable that more specimens
have not been preserved in spite of their very
fragile nature. The figure is now in the British
Museum. J. EDGE-PARTINGTON.

Hill-Tout.
By C. Hill-Tout.

REVIEWS.
Totemism.

Totemism : A Consideration of its Origin and Import.
(Trans. Roy. Soc. Canada, 2nd Ser., IX., pages 61-99.)

The subject of totemism was discussed in Man, 1903, 75, 84, 85, by the late Major
J. W. Powell, Mr. E. S. Hartland, and myself. In that controversy, unhappily cut
short by Major Powell's lamented death, I took exception to the terminology of
American anthropologists and pointed out that it did not make for clearness, which
is the first essential of a scientific nomenclature. This controversy Mr. Hill-Tout now
take3 up and defeuds the position adopted by Major Powell and, apparently, by all other
American anthropologists.

I pointed out in my note on the American view that three questions were at issue :
(1) How far the terminology came up to a scientific standard ; (2) how far their
definition of totemism fulfilled its purpose of strictly defining the limits of the system of
ideas to which American anthropologists apply the name ; and (3) how far the
classification of primitive ideas which they adopt is both logical and useful. Under
the impression that the formal quest iou of terminology is identical with the fundamental
question of the basis of the whole system, Mr. Hill-Tout now argues that my criticism
of Major Powell was based on an eutire failure to comprehend the Americau point of
view. The justice of this criticism, which seems to me to rest on a serious confusion
of thought, I cannot admit.

[ 74 ]

1904.] MAN. [No. 48.

Major Powell used the term totem for (1) a body of people (gens or clan) united
by ties of consanguinity, (2) the name of this body, and (3) their mark or " clay " ;
(4) the object from which the mark was derived, and to which alone the term totem is
applied in Europe, is elsewhere (Johnson's Encycl.) a totem ; but this sense is omitted
in Man ; it is (5) the name of a tribe formed of two or more ciaus or gentes ; it is
also (6) the puberty name of an individual, and (7) the object from which the name
is derived ; it is, further, (8) the name of a shamanistic society, formed by voluntary
association, and (9) the object from which such a society takes its name. To this
system of nomenclature I objected that everything was called by the same name, a view
which I see no reason for changing, but, pace Mr. Hill-Tout, that has absolutely nothing to
do with my acceptance of, or refusal to accept, the American classification under one head
of the primitive beliefs and practices with which Major Powell was dealing. I will
make this clear by a simple example. Four-legged objects, such as elephants, babies
(before they find their legs), chairs, and crocodiles, have, from the point of view of legs,
a unity of their own. It may be desirable to discuss them from that point of view, but
I cannot see that anything is gained by calling them ail elephants. If in reply to
Mr. A., who uses this name for the four classes of objects, I object that his terminology
is confusing aud obscures his meaning, I by no means deny that the objects in question
possess, from the point of view adopted, a certain unity. But the question of the value
of the classification of the universe into four-legged and not-four-legged objects is quite
another matter, and must not be coufused with the question of whether they are all to
be termed elephants indiscriminately.

The adequacy of the definition is again a different question from both that of
terminology aud that of the underlying principles of classification. If we are dealing
with four-legged objects I may enquire whether the definition does not unintentionally
include objects with heterogeneous legs, such as a man on crutches, &c. Mr. Hill-Tout
has done excelleut work in other directions, but in taking up Major Powell's controversy
he has been unfortunate.

Mr. Hill-Tout defends Major Powell's terminology on the ground that (1) the analysis
of primitive beliefs on which Major Powell based his conception of totemism is
accurate and logical, and (2) that the Algonquin* did, as a matter of fact, apply the
term totem to all the objects (phenomena Mr. Hill-Tout terms them) enumerated
above. I have already shown that his first contention is based on a confusion of
thought. As regards his second, no evidence has so far been produced to the effect that
the Ameriuds actually use the term in all the nine senses enumerated above. Even
were it otherwise I caunot admit that the Algonquians are better acquainted with the
esseutials of a scientific terminology than we are. Native usage is important as showing
the nature of primitive classification and as an aid to discovering the ultimate meaning
of native beliefs and practices, but we are no more bound to call everything a totem
than we are bound to follow the natives of Calabar, to whom horses, carriages, and
wheelbarrows were unknown in pre-European days, in calling a wheelbarrow "a white
man's little cow house." Terminology is a matter of civilised convenience, not of
savage usage.

I uow turn to the second point mentioned above — the adequacy or otherwise of the
definition. Major Powell tells us totemism is a doctrine of naming and does not define
it further in any formal way. I have quite failed to discover why, if the definition is
accurate, Major Powell includes the puberty name of the individual aud excludes other
personal names, magical or nou-magi'jal. Mr. Hill-Tout se^ms to differ from Major
Powell here and decides the toteinic character or otherwise of the name by the criterion
of the source from which it is drawn. If it is derived from a tutelary spirit it is
toteinic, but not otherwise. As I pointed out iu my criticism of Major Powell, it was
only by showing some inner unity of this kind that his positiou could be justified. Ou

i 75 ]

No. 48.] MAN. [1904.

this point, therefore, Mr. Hill-Tout, unconsciously, as it appears, accepts my criticism of
Major Powell as well-founded.

I therefore pass on to the third question. Does the underlying unity postulated
by Mr. Hill-Tout exist ? Is a tutelary spirit, who gives his name to a person or body
of persons, associated with (a) individuals, (b) clans and gentes, (c) tribes, and
(d) voluntary shamanistic associations ?

The first of these cases hardly calls for discussion. It is abundantly clear that an
affirmative answer is correct. I may, however, ask Mr. Hill-Tout why, if the tutelary
spirit is the essential feature of totemism, he excludes the witch with her familiar and
the werman with his animal double. Does he in this case accept Major Powell's view
and make the absence of the name decisive ?

As regards the last case, Major Powell and Mr. Hill-Tout seem to be at variauce.
The former says "it may be that the name (!) of the society becomes its tutelary deity,"
but of this there is yet insufficient evideuce. Mr. Hill-Tout, on the other hand, has no
hesitation in assigning a guardian spirit to the " medicine societies. 91 European anthro-
pologists may, perhaps, be excused if they regard the American view as unsettled, both
in this case and that of the canon of totemism, and ask American anthropologists to
agree among themselves on fundamental points before they charge us with a failure to
appreciate the evidence.

The tutelary deity of the tribe Mr. Hill-Tout leaves unmentioned, whether because
no case is known to him or because he does not regard such a belief as properly classifi-
able under totemism, I do not venture to say. Here, again, America seems undecided.
The question of the tutelary deity of the clan or gens (i.e., matri- or patri-lineal
totem-kin) is also a point on which Mr. Hill-Tout differs from Major Powell. According
to the former, whose view I propose to discuss later, the totem-kin is the expanded
family of an individual or of the sister of an individual who had for his nagual
(a term I propose to use for the " individual totem ") the subsequent totem of the kin.
Major Powell, however, writes : " the totem name of the clan and the geus . . .
u become the tutelary deities of these bodies." In Mr. Hill-Tout's view the deity existed
before the kin had come into being. Mr. Powell, on the other hand, believed that
the name (not the thing denominated by the name) becomes the tutelary deity and
thus takes a view of the origin of their totemism which closely approximates to
that of Mr. Lang. Elsewhere, however, Major Powell conceives that the kin adopted
the god, who gave his name to the clan {Johnsons Univ. Cycl. y Art. Indians), a view
which seems irreconcileable with that put forward in Man, as well as with Mr. Hill-
Tout's view.

I am not, however, here concerned with questions of origin, but with questions of
fact. Both Major Powell and Mr. Hill-Tout ascribe a tutelary deity to the totem^kin
which is of the same nature as the tutelary deity of the individual. We must, I suppose,
regard this as the accepted American view. But, apart from the evidence derived from
the tribes of the north-west, which can hardly be regarded as typical cases of totemic
peoples at the present day, still Jess of pre-totemic peoples emerging into totemisms by a
process of unhampered evolution free from extraneous influences, I am not aware that
any evideuce has been published which justifies the statement.

Iu my article of 1902 I set forth all the facts known to me which could be held to
justify in any degree Mijor Powell's assimilation of kin totems to those of individuals.
I was able to quote two cases from Australia iu which animistic ideas seemed to
be associated with kin-totemism. These were, however, very far from justifying the
assertion that there was a tutelary deity of this clan.

In the case of the Geawe-Gal (Kamilaroi and Kurnai, p. 280), which formerly
occupied part of the Sidney district, it was asserted that they believed every one had
within himself an affinity to the spirit of some beast, bird, or reptile, a fact which they

[ 76 ]

1904.] MAN. [No. 48.

connected in some way with their generic names. The name Geawe-Gal means " the
men of Geawe" ; if, therefore, they were a totem-kin it follows that they must have
had male descent, a condition which, in Australia, is associated with all sorts of abnor-
malities. The only other statement to the same effect, slightly more definite, which I
have found, refers to another of the same group of tribes, a fact which seems to indicate
an abnormal development.

The other piece of evidence 1 was able to produce was derived from the burial
custom of the tribe of Elgin Downs, North Queensland, which I have not been able to
identify, but which may be the Narboo Murre or one of the sub-tribes on the Belgando ;
they divined from the track of an animal the totem of the sorcerer who had killed the
dead man ; from this I inferred that, like the wer-man and the wizard of other countries,
the Queensland black believed he was able to take animal form, that this form must be
that of his kin-totem. Mr. Lang has urged against this that it would be impossible to
identify a man if only his kin-totem were known, though it might be possible if his
individual totem were discovered. I cannot admit that the objection is a valid one. In
the first place, there is no reason to suppose that it would be easier to identify the
malefactor by his individual totem (nagual), for there may be just as many or more persons
with the same nagual as with the same kin-totem. In the second place, it is a matter of
common knowledge that, in the absence of the individual crimiual, it is, on all the
principles of savage justice, sufficient to kill his kinsman. Consequently if the Myall can
discover to what kin the sorcerer belongs he need seek no further. I therefore uphold
my interpretation of the facts. This is, however, very possibly an exceptional case, and
in any event it is a far cry from a wer-animal to a tutelary deity of the kin. So far as
Australia is concerned, therefore, I find no support for Mr. Hill-Tout's assertion. It is
unfortunate that he has not given us the American evidence, the nature of which I have
no means of knowing.

It will perhaps be convenient at this point to draw attention to an extraordinary
statement made by Mr. Hill-Tout (p. 85), which is certainly not true of any existing
Australian totem group, nor, so far as I am aware, is there auy American case.
44 American tribal society presents us," says Mr. Hill-Tout, " with totem groups living
44 under eudogamous regulations and marrying strictly within the family or totem group.
44 And the same thing is found in Australia.'' That is to say, we are to believe that
there are clans or gentes who may not go outside the limits of their own group in search
of a wife. Until Mr. Hill-Tout quotes his evidence I decline to believe it. Endogamy
is, it is true, a term that has been loosely used to denote tbc prohibition of marriage not
outside the kinship group, but outside the tribe. Endogamy in this sense does not exist
in Australia, so far as I am aware, nor is the term in this sense the correlative of
exogamy, which means the prohibition of marriage within the kinship group. But
Mr. Hill-Tout does not use exogamy in this sense, nor yot in the still looser sense iQ
which it only implies that tribesmen or clansmen are permitted to marry within the
tribe or clan. I can only suppose that Mr. Hill-Tout is using his term in some cryptic
sense. That this may be so I iufer from a passage in Proc. Roy. Soc, Canada, VII., 14,
where I find that he writes " the gens has developed by amalgamation " into the clan "
amoug the Kwakiutl.

This passage remained incomprehensible until I discovered that Mr. Hill-Tout
(Brit. Assoc. Rep., 1900, p. 477) uses clan to denote a group composed of blood
relatives to the sixth generation (which had therefore neither exclusively matri-liueal
descent nor any fixed limits) and gens for the local group formed by an aggregation
of u clans."

Mr. Hill-Tout complains that European anthropologists do not understand the views
of American studeuts. Possibly the reason is to be found in part iu the extraordinary
looseness with which they use terms which have in Europe a recognised meaning. I

[ 77 j

Nob. 48-49.] MAN. [1904.

venture to thiuk it is due in part also to a fundamental looseness of thought aud
inaccuracy of statement, or the part of American students, of which the various arguments
aud statements to which I have taken exception in the foregoing are examples.

N. W. THOMAS.

Paragruay. Grubbe.

Among the Indians of the Paraguayan Chaco : A Story of Missionary m q
Work in South America. Told by W. Brabrooke Grubbe and his fellow- *TU
workers. Edited by Gertrude Wilson, B.Litt. London : South American Missionary
Society, 1904. Pp. xiv + 176. 23 x 13 cm. Price 2s. 6rf.

This interesting little book is in many respects supplementary to the paper on the
Lengua, published in Journ. Anthr. Inst. y XXXI., 280 et seq. The Towothli, the
Paisiaptos, and the Suhin, as well as the Lengua, are, however, included ; and, unfortu-
nately for those who regard details of savage beliefs and customs as subjects on which
exact statements are desirable, we are not told in many cases to which of the tribes the
information applies. From the same point of view it is a matter for regret that we have
no means of knowing how far the words of the book are the work of the editor, and how
far Mr. Grubbe is responsible for them. This is particularly the case when explanations
of the superstitions are attempted. We read, for example, that no one touches a knife
when a rainbow is in the sky for fear of cutting himself. The original reason is more
likely to have been a fear of offending or injuring the rainbow, and it would be well to
know if the explanation is that given by the Indians themselves. The suggestion on
the same page that when the sun is trying " to break through the clouds a lighted stick
u is held up to encourage him " savours strongly of European influence ; it is hardly
likely to be a product of the unsophisticated native mind, and is probably not derived
from the natives at all. With a little more care in indicating sources aud distinguishing
in an unmistakeable manner the racial provenience of each item the usefulness of the
book would have been much increased at no cost to its interest as a record of missionary
work.

The view is taken that witchcraft is all jugglery and imposition. So far as the
witch doctors deal with cases susceptible of amelioration or cure by suggestion, this is
hardly accurate ; the influence of the witch doctors no doubt depends a good deal ou
charlatanism ; their power of suggestion is thereby enhauced in a manner which, if
hardly legitimate, can, perhaps, be paralleled in civilised countries. But to put down
the cures effected by them as eutirely superstitious is to ignore the universally prevalent
element of suggestion, with or without hypnotism, in medicine. If the savage witch
doctor sucks a beetle or a fish-bone out of your leg when it hurts you, he is only doing
in his way what the fashionable physician does in his way when he prescribes a bread
pill or some equally harmless aud in itself inoperative remedy.

Among other items of interest is the mention of a deluge myth, the details of which
are, however, very meagre. It seems to be of the same type as the Araucanian story.
A mythical serpeut, Boyrusu, is said to swallow girls at puberty, if they are not confined
to their huts. At marriage the husband goes to live with his wife's people, but not
infrequently spends part of his time in his own village. On page 69 we find a possible
trace of totemism. Some Iudians will not eat wild cat, others object to the flesh of
the fox.

Some interesting information is given about technology, dancing and singing, and
other points, but hardly in a systematic manuer. lu this respect English missionaries
might well copy the Germans, who are encouraged by their Government to supply
information as to the natives with whom they come in contact, aud in many cases do
most excellent work in this direction. N. W. T.

[ 78 ]

1904.] MAN. [No. 50.

Africa* Johnston.

The Nile Quest : a Record of the Exploration of the Nile and its Basin, r A
By Sir Harry Johnston, G.C.M.G., K.C.B. (President of the African Society), DU
With illustrations from drawings and photographs by the author and others ; with maps
by J. G. Bartholomew. London : Lawrence and Bullen, Ltd., 1903. Pp. xv + 341.
Index and two appendices. 23 x 15 cm. Price 7 *. 6d.

The history of North Africa in the ordiuary sense has yet to be written. Hitherto
it has been almost exclusively the history of individuals, the record of their struggles
and achievements in a quest as dangerous and almost as difficult as that of Arthur's
knights ; calling, like it, for faith, courage, and endurance, and too often ending in
failure and death. It is, therefore, peculiarly fitting that this volume should be the first
of a series which, the editor tells us, is to be an effort to " make the story of exploration
" circle round the personality of the men who had the leading share in carrying on the
" adventurous work."

Sir Harry Johnston has given us an eminently readable account of the story of the
search for and discovery of the sources of the Nile. In these days the public demands
its information in a condensed form ; few general readers care to attack a four or five
volume record of one man's experiences, especially when a certain proportion is open to
contradiction and correction. Yet it becomes more and more evident that Africa is a
factor in the future to be reckoned with, not merely as a happy hunting ground for
explorers, not even as a bone of contention between nations jealous of each other's
prestige, but as a practical outlet for the energies of Europe. It is then increasingly
desirable that we should be enabled to realise what this country is like which has been
opened up at the cost of the blood and sweat of so many.

This book traces the contributions of each race from the earliest times to the present
day. It is with considerable surprise that we learn the extent and accuracy of the
knowledge possessed by the Phoenicians and Greeks concerning the interior of Northern
Africa and the sources and course of the Nile. The efforts and successes of modern
explorers have overshadowed those of their predecessors that we are apt to ignore the
latter, and it is probable that the name of Bruce will be the first to fall with a familiar
sound on modern ears. Nevertheless, Johnston tells us that the Mountains of the Moon
and the twin lakes at the source of the White Nile were described to Diogenes, the
Greek explorer, by Arabs in the year 50 a.d., and the geographers of that day and even
earlier made astonishingly accurate maps of the Nile basin.

The plan of giving a separate chapter to the emissaries of each nation or race,
though it has the advantage of avoiding any unfairness, despite the unavoidable
preponderance of British names in the list of those who have devoted themselves to the
solving of the great riddle, involves a certain amount of repetition. Another drawback
is that it occasionally results in confusing the reader as to dates. He is carried on to
the present day in one chapter and then finds himself thrown back forty or fifty years
in the next. That the solution of the problem is by no means solely due to the restless
energy of the Anglo-Saxon is made abundantly evident on glancing through the roll of
names given at the eud of the book, wherein are shown French, Germans, Italians,
Portuguese ; in fact, almost every race in Europe may claim to be represented. It would
be interesting to trace the relative success of the various nationalities to their characteristic
physique. It is noticeable that the sturdy Britons and Germans usually withstood the
material difficulties of the way, while the slighter Gaul seems to have succumbed to the
inevitable hardships. Of Italians, all who have made the attempt appear to have
attained a great degree of success, especially Romolo Gessi, Gordon's ally.

Among the most interesting chapters in the book we may note those on Bruce,
Speke, and the famous Emin Pasha. That on Dr. Schweinfurth also contains much
to arrest the attention ; indeed, whenever the author allows himself to dwell on an

[ 79 ]

Nob. 50-51.] MAN. [1904.

individual, as in the romantic tragedy of Miss Tinne, he arouses interest, while his brief
quotations frequently leave one, like Oliver Twist, asking for more. There is, on the
other hand, a perhaps unavoidable crowding in those chapters devoted to the less
distinguished or successful seekers. It is, of course, impossible to give in any detail the
experiences of every man, but the attempt to enumerate all in so little space occasionally
results in a feeling of congestion. We regret also a tendency to dwell on disputes better
forgotten, and even at the time of their occurrence purely personal, between some of the
most famous men whose exploits are recorded. Some jealousy and heartburning was no
doubt inevitable, but since they have done noble work nobly we caunot but think it a
pity that attention should be drawn to the weaker traits in their characters.

Apart from these minor defects, however, the book contains much that should not
only interest the general public but should also lead many to study the older and more
detailed accounts of Kile exploration as well as awakening more personal attention to
the fact that a rich and habitable country now lies open to our occupation. Why should
not the stream of emigration now flowing to America be turned in time to this fertile and
scantily-populated country, thus converting what is at present a dead loss to the mother
country into a source of increasing wealth ?

The text is accompanied by numerous interesting illustrations and most excellent
maps. R. W. FELKIN.

Argentina. Ambrosetti.

Los pucos pintados de rojo sobre bianco del valle de Yocavil. Por r4
Juan B. Ambrosetti. (Offprint from the Anales del Museo National de Buenos %} |
Aires. Tomo IX., pp. 357-369.) Buenos Aires, 1903. 26 x 18 cm.

Cuatro Pictografi&s de la region Calchaqui. Por Juan B. Ambrosetti. (Offprint
from the Anales de la Sociedad Cienttfica Argentina. Tomo LVI., p. 116.) Buenos
Aires, 1903. 25 x 17 cm.

The first of these two papers contains a description of some rare ancient Calchaqui
pottery found at ruins in the north of Argentina. The " pucos " (the word is not
Castilian) are dishes or bowls of varying diameter and depth, but generally of small size.
Only about a score of them are known to exist. They are made of a native red-burning
clay and are generally unpolished on the outside. Inside they are burnished and covered
with a white slip, turning to straw-colour with time and exposure, on which desigus are
painted with a fine brush. These are divided into two classes. In the first the scheme
is composed of four or five chevrons, the apices of which are not carried down to the
centre, so that there is a space which may be either left plain or else ornamented with a
detached figure such as a square composed of reticulated chevrons or a circle enclosing
a swastika-like development of the overshot angle. In the second class the field is
partitioned into four parts by two narrow bands crossing at the centre, and each of the
divisions so formed is occupied with a rudely-drawn bird's head. Occasionally the
outside rim is decorated with a band of blue, which indicates the transition to a better
known type of trichrome ware. Sefior Ambrosetti's promised continuations of this
subject will be anticipated with interest.

In the Cuatro Pictografids the same author describes some curious rock-drawings
found in a neighbouring district. They represent scenes in which men, animals (llamas),
and gods are figured. One which is probably connected with a phallic cult seems to
show the native hunters praying to Pachamama, the goddess of animals, for success in
the chase of llamas. Another is interpreted as being the illustration of a native myth,
in which the lightning-god, typified by a serpent with white crosses on his body,
emblematic of rain, is attacked by four small men representing the black clouds. The
serpent is shown swallowing one of the little men, and his victory over them is what
gives the blessing of rain. D. RANDALL-MACIVER.

Printed by Stbb and Spottiswoodk, His Majesty's Printer*, East Harding Street, E.C.

Plate F.

Man, 1904.

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1904.] MAN. [No. 52.

ORIGINAL ARTICLES.
Peru : Copper Implements. With Plate P. Gigrlioli.

Hafted Oopper Implements from Peru. By Professor E. H. Giglioli. pa

I have had occasion to photograph some copper implements from Peru found 02.
in tombs (huacas) and provided with their original hafts, which form part of my
collection, and as such specimens arc decidedly rare and of high interest, showing, as they
do, various modes of hafting, I believe it may prove interesting to the readers of Max to
see a reproduction of those photographs with short explanatory notes. The specimens
illustrated are the following : —

(a.) Copper Axe. — Long and uarrow, chisel-shaped ; it widens slightly at the
butt end, where it evidently widens further so as to have a T-shaped butt, which fits
(possibly in a groove) against the wooden handle, to which it is firmly bound by a broad
piece of stout raw-hide, through which the blade passes ; the hide is doubled back and
projects as a square appendage at the back of the handle, being kept tight by a treble
stitching of raw-hide. No more stout and solid binding could be devised ; the hide is
well preserved, the haft is cylindrical and has the polish of use ; it is of a tough yellow
wood, also well preserved. In point of fact this implement does not look ancient, and it
certainly recalled to my mind the assertion of David Forbes (Joum. Ethn. Soc. y II.,
p. 71 (extract) ; London, 1870), that the Aymard or Colla Indians yet used copper axes.
My specimen was found at Carabuco on the eastern shore of Lake Titicaca, within the
old Colla-suyu, the territory of the Colla or Aymard, Length of haft, 515 mm. ; of blade
and binding 190 mm. Width of blade at uncovered butt end, 30 mm. ; thickness of blade
at same place, 5 mm. This is evidently a good working implement and might prove an
efficient weapon.

(6.) Copper Ceremonial Axe. — Blade crescentic, with a piece cut out parallel to
the outer contour ; it has a short peduncle which widens out into two lengthened,
horizontal, narrow prolongations, T-Kke, which fit into a groove cut into the haft, to
which the blade is secured by a binding of cord and cotton twine, blue and yellow,
artistically wound. The haft is a stout cylindrical stick of chonta, i.e., palm wood.
This singular axe was found in a huaca at Chimbote in the ancient Yunca-suyu and
pertained, I believe, to Chimu people ; I think it was a ceremonial badge, for the blade
is thin and has no cutting edge. Length of haft, 890 mm. ; length of blade from haft,
102 mm. ; width of blade, 120 mm.

(c.) Copper Axe. — Thin, straight, semi-lunar blade, with a long narrow tang ; this
passes right through a slender cylindrical haft of chonta or palm wood ; the haft is there
strengthened by an artistic binding of blue and yellow cotton twine. The end of the
long tang is bent. The copper blade is sharp and may have been used for light
choppiug, certainly not for heavy work. From a huaca at Ciclayo, in the land of the
old Chimu. This implement is very similar in shape to some of the battle axes of
the Zulus and Basutos of South Africa. The length of the haft is 550 mm., that of the
blade from the bent end of the tang to the cutting edge 135 mm., the vertical width of
the blade is 138 mm.

(d.) Copper Axe. — Also chisel-shaped, but widening at the cutting edge, stout
and thick ; its narrow but thick ish butt passes right through a stout cylindrical haft
of chonta, which is strengthened by an artistic binding of blue cotton twine. This is
evidently an efficient working tool ; it was found in a huaca near Truxillo, Peru, the
centre of Yunca-suyu and the old Chimu Kingdom. Length of haft, 510 mm. ; of
blade, 135 mm. ; width of blade at cutting edge, 38 mm.

(e.) Copper Hammer. — It is oval in shape, with a raised incised zone round its
middle, simulating a binding. It is hollow, and has an aperture on the under-side, into
which is fitted the end of a flat-pointed handle of tough light wood ; it is well balanced

[ 81 ]

Nos. 53-53.] MAN. [1904.

on its handle. This small bat efficient tool could only have been used by gold and
silver smiths ; it was found in a huaca at Ciclayo. Length of haft, 285 mm. ; long
diameter of head, 40 mm. ; short diameter, 34 mm.

(/.) Copper Chisel. — A big, massive implement with a hollow butt-end, into
which is fitted a stout cylindrical rough handle of tough wood. From a huaca near Eten,
at the northern end of the old Yunca-suyu and of modern Peru. It is a most efficient
tool, but can hardly have been used in excavating " dug outs," for which it appears most
adapted, for the region where it was found can boast of no trees, and, besides, balsas
(rafts) and not boats were used on that coast ;, it might have been an agricultural tool.
Total length, 680 mm. ; of copper blade, 230 mm. ; width, 28 mm. ; thickness at the
base of quadrangular portion, 30 mm. E. H. GIGLIOLI.

Totemism. Thomas.

Further Remarks on Mr. Hill-Tout's Views on Totemism. By pa

N. W. Thomas, M.A. OO

In my remarks on Mr. Hill-Tout's paper (Man, 1904. 48) I dealt with his
definition and canons of totemism, leaving for future discussion the American theory of
origin and the criticisms passed on some European conceptions of totemism. With the
latter I do not propose to. deal fully, as they do not, with one exception, concern essential
features. This exception is the question of exogamy and the idea of kinship.

Mr. Hill-Tout argues that social organisation is, indeed, frequently associated with
totemism, but that this conjunction is purely accidental, that the clan is a normal unit
of organisation, and that it does not depend for its extension or its limitation on its
association with totemism. With regard to exogamy his contention is the same.
Admitting that it has become in a measure associated with totemism, he says, " Is it not
" because the endogamous (sic) or incest group is the same thing as the clan group ? "
On the same page he argues that " if the canon of exogamy were of totemic origin, we
" ought to find a uniformity of practice," whereas we, in fact, find " totem groups living
" under endogamous regulations,. and marrying strictly within the totem group."

The objections to Mr. Hill -Tout's views and arguments are numerous. In my
criticism of his definition and general treatment of the subject (Man, loc. cit.) I pointed
out that for the endogamous totem clan we had no evidence. Eveu if we call
Mr. Hill-Tout's village communities clans it is not true. For the mere practice of
marrying with the local group, which Mr. Hill-Tout calls a clan, is not, properly
speaking, endogamy. There is no sanction, so far as I kuow, attached to the violation
of the custom. Supposing, however, that the totem kin, as defined by Mr. Hill-Tout,
were sometimes endogamous, it is by no means clear how this fact proves that the
totem kin, as defined by English anthropologists, is (or was in its typical stage) anything
but exogamous. If I am asked if I have been to London it is hardly a reply to state
that I have a brother who has been to Liverpool. Unless Mr. Hill-Tout can produce
totem-kins in the English sense, which are not, and never were, exogamous, his case is
a mere ignoratio elenchi.

The Papuan evidence cited by Mr. Hill-Tout to prove the non-coincidence of the
kin with the exogamous group (I may point out in passing that he has himself asserted
their identity) is, as he admits, inconclusive, for the very simple reason that the people
in question are passing out of totemism. If this fixity of species is not true in biology
it is still less true in sociology. Unless social organisation, once brought into existence,
is unchangeable and changeless there must be mixed forms. A crocodile, in the art of
primitive man, may look very unlike a crocodile, but that does uot entitle us to say that
it may not, as a matter of convenience, be called a crocodile. If the crocodile appears in
savage art without legs, we may term it a crocodile without committing ourselves to the
doctrine that it takes its walks abroad on the banks of the Nile without these appendages.

[ «* ]

1904.3 MAN. [No. 53.

So, too, if we speak of totem ism in Torres Strait we do not imply that it is anything
but decadent totemism which has lost some of its central features.

The other case cited by Mr. Hill-Tout is that of the Arunta. The same remarks
apply here. The evidence drawn from their myth that in the past the kins were
endogamous is for more than one reason unsatisfactory : — (1.) The myth is a savage
guess ; savage guesses are notoriously wide of the truth. (2.) We can explain their
present development, as I hope to show, without going beyond known facts (Max, 1904,
infra). (3.) The great mass of each kin is in each case in one phratry. This implies
that at some period the kin were grouped in the ordinary way, i.e., all the members in
one phratry, and is inexplicable on the supposition that the totem never had the same
connection with marriage regulations which we fiud elsewhere. (4.) The myth is, like
the Arunta system, unique, which it would not be if endogamy were, at the origin of
totemism, a normal phenomenon. The Arunta are, as Dr. Durkheim has conclusively
proved, in no sense primitive. Consequently we cannot assume that they are typical of
totemistic peoples at any early stage.

On the question of the origin of totem kinship I can hardly reconcile Mr. Hill-Tout's
contention that the kin is the natural incest group with his subsequent statement that
strictly endogamous kins are found. I await with interest his explanation of how the
incest group, " which is the same body," ever came to be anything but exogamous, let
alone strictly endogamous, as Mr. Hill-Tout asserts. The Arunta have an incest group,
viz., the class, which was probably later than the totem kin, but was not based upon
the kin, and never coincided with it. If the myth be our guide the kin never was an
incest group. How, then, can it be asserted that the kin is the same as the incest group ?

Mr. Hill-Tout holds that the kin are descended from a single pair. I find it
difficult to reconcile the assertion that the kin is a blood-related group (Proc. R.S. Can.,
IX., ii, 84) with the assertion (Brit. Assoc. Rep., 1902, p. 409) that the society of the
sqoiaqi, which Mr. Hill-Tout (Proc. R.S. Can., VII., ii, 14) regards as "a totemic
gens or phratry," is recruited by marriage. Apparently, for Mr. Hill-Tout, affinity,
consanguinity, and kinship are all the same thing.

Quite apart from this confusion, the derivation of the totem kin from a single pair,
and the assumption that it is consanguinity and not kinship that holds the kin together,
seems to be based on an entire misapprehension. In the first place, consanguinity is a
question of fact, not of opinion or law. The father of a child is the father, whether the
child be legitimate or not, but he is not akin to it by English law, though he may in
Scotland become its kinsman by subsequent marriage. The Australian black recognises
the fact of paternity and paternal authority, even though descent (i.e., kinship) be
reckoned through the mother. The mother, too, does not cease to be consanguine
with her child though the rule of descent be patrilineal.

Again, in America, Torres Strait, and elsewhere a change of totem or adoption into
a clan is possible. But no conceivable legal or customary device cau change the con-
sauguineal relationships of a man. Were Mr. Hill-Tout's theory correct, if I become
a kangaroo man, my blood relatives in England should also be regarded by the blacks
as kangaroo men and women, for the fact that I have, on his view, entered into fresh
relations of consanguinity by no means abrogates those previously existing, and my
blood relations must be theirs also. The mere fact, too, that no one can be a member
of two totem kins (according to the English definition) is sufficient to demonstrate that
Mr. Hill-Tout's position is untenable. It proves that totem kinship is determined by
law 8 or customary rules ; membership of a family is, on the other hand, determined by
birth, and by birth I must be cousanguineally related to at least two families, unless,
indeed, my father happened to follow the example of the Ptolemies.

It is not, we may note in passing, easy to define how far consanguinity extends,
inasmuch as it is differently conceived by different peoples : Welsh cousinship is, for

[ 83 ]

No. 58.] MAN. [1904.

example, proverbially extensive. But as it does not appear that any inconvenience will
arise from leaving its limits undefined, we may in each case adopt those of the people
with whom we are dealing.

Before I leave the question of totem kinship I may point out an important point
in which it differs from other systems of consanguinity or kinship. The kin is com-
posed of totem brothers and totem sisters, and of these exclusively — a sufficient proof,
if more were needed, that consanguinity is not a term which can be properly applied to
the relationship between them.

I now turn to a consideration of the naguai theory of the origin of totem ism. I may
perhaps, before pointing out in what respects it is inapplicable to totemism as understood
in England, draw attention to the fact that it is hardly effective as argument to attempt,
as Mr. Hill-Tout does, to prove that the European theory of the origin of totemism,
defined in the European way, is wrong because it does not take into account facts which
no European anthropologist regards as haviug any connection with totemism. If
Mr. Hill-Tout's definition of totemism permits him to speak of the group-totem as
*' spreading outside of the family into the tribe or even beyond it," for the reason that
" here the factor of affinity is operating as well as that of consanguinity," the statement
is more valuable as throwing light on psychological processes than as a demonstration of
the fact that Mr. Andrew Lang is wrong in his contention that personal totems do not
become group totems. If a certain definition of totemism is accepted, and a theory of
the origin of totemism is proposed by those who accept the definition, and if a critic
points out that this theory overlooks a fatal objection, it is no reply to inform him that
the theory explains the origin of totemism defined in an entirely different way.

Mr. Hill-Tout argues that totemism originates in a patrilineal just as much as in
a matriiiueal state of society, and that consequently Mr. Laug's contention that it is
impossible to derive his totem from the naguai because in a matriiiueal society no father
ever bauds down his naguai to his children, is not a disproof of the naguai theory as
applied to certain peoples. Assuming for the moment the accuracy of Mr. Laug's
contention, which is, however, called in question by Mr. Hill-Tout, it may be admitted
that the point is a good one so far as proof is given that totemism really does originate
in a patrilineal tribe.

In that case, however, in the absence of auy disproof of Mr. Lang's contention with
regard to matrilineal tribes, we must either recognise a double or multiple origin of
totemism or hold that though in the patrilineal tribe the naguai might have been the source
of the totem, it was, as a matter of fact, not so derived. Mr. Hill-Tout's choice then
lies between the former of these alternatives and a disproof of Mr. Lang's contention. He
adopts the latter course and cites a myth of the Tsimshian Bear kiu to show that
among matrilineal peoples too the totem may be derived from the naguai and that the
clan originates wheu a man's naguai becomes hereditary in the family by his sister or
sisters.

Here, too, it may be admitted that the point is a good one, so far as it is proved that
naguals actually are handed down in the way in question. We must, however, bear in miud
(1) that the myth is almost certainly post-totemic, (2) that such myths are demonstrably
valueless as evidence of origin, (3) that consequently this myth not only does not tell us
how the Bear clan actually originated, but (4) does not oven prove that the Tsimshian,
at the time when totemism originated among them, held the views about the descent
of the naguai which would have made the uagualistic origin of totemism possible.
This is, of course, in no sense a disproof of the naguai theory of origin as applied to
Tsimshian totemism. It may have had that origin, though we cannot prove it. At the
same time we cannot disprove it, though against the naguai theory tells the fact that
the Tsimshian have only four totem-kins — raven, eagle, wolf, aud bear — aud we can
hardly suppose that totemism originated among them when the whole tribe consisted of

[ 84 ]

1904.] MAN. [Nob. 53-54.

eight persons at most, four of whom were possibly imported from outside. Yet such
must have been the case if Mr. Hill-Tout's " uterine kinship" theory of the basis of the
clan is correct.

However this may be, it is more important to notice that the nagual theory can
hardly be applied to Australia, and that, consequently, we can only derive the totem from
the nagual in America, if we are prepared to face the possibility of a multiple origin of
totemism. The nagual is in Australia almost non-existent. It is reported among the
Euahlayi in New South Wales, the Wotjoballuk in Victoria, the Yaraikanna of Cape
York, and probably among some of the northern tribes on the other side of the Gulf of
Carpentaria. But with these exceptions there is no evidence for its general diffusion,
much less for its importance and priority in time over the totem. But if the nagual iB
almost non-existent in Australia, it is clearly difficult to derive the totem from it. Not
only so, but where the nagual is found there is no trace of an hereditary nagual and no
myth of a nagual origin of totemism. The probability is, therefore, entirely against
Mr. Hill-Tout's hypothesis. At the same time I readily admit that much remains to be
done before we can regard our knowledge of Australian totems as adequate, and that, in
particular, the origin and nature of subsidiary totems demands close investigation.
Nothing, however, that has been yet recorded of these suggests that they are of the
nature of naguals or are inherited from the maternal uncle.

On the whole, therefore, it appears that the American theory of totemism finds no
support in the Australian facts ; at the same time the possibility of a multiple origin
must be kept in mind, and no theory of origin, otherwise acceptable, dismissed on the
ground that the Australian evidence either does not warrant its acceptance, or is actually
inconsistent with its assumption. On the other hand, any theory which successfully
explains Australian totemism must, if applicable to American or African totemism, or
both, be admitted to have a greater degree of probability than a theory which explains
one group of facts only.

Mr. Hill-Tout's definition of totemism being entirely different from the one accepted
in England, and the application of it being, as I endeavoured to show in my review of
his paper, vitiated by a disregard for facts, I abstain for the preseut from a discussion of
the evidence he has collected among the Salish. If uuder the stress of Mr. Hill-Tout's
dialectic English anthropologists are driven to remodel their ideas on totemism, to
regard the totem as a tutelary deity and the totem kin as occasionally built up by affinity
and normally held together by consanguinity, I may return to the subject. Totemism,
however, divorced from exogamy, and defined in the American fashion, seems to present
few problems of interest, and will probably cease to be a household word.

N. W. THOMAS.

Chile : Physical Anthropology. Latcham.

Notes on an Ancient Skull from the Chilian Andes. By R. E. mm

Latcham, Local Correspondent of the Anthropological Institute. Ut

A short time ago 1 received a skull found in an ancient barrow on the Andes slopes,
iu the Province of Coquimbo.

The cist, from the description giveu of it, was probably of the pre-Incasic period,
that is to say, Wore the Incas invaded Chile in the latter part of the fourteenth century.
It was formed of slabs of rough-hewn stone placed on edge, and covered with other
slabs rather thicker.

There is some reason to doubt, however, if this skull belonged to the primary inter-
ment or to a subsequent one, as the skull belongs to a female, and females were not usually
buried in these cists. There were also several other bones, some fragments of pottery,
and a kind of flute formed from the thigh bone of a huanaco or vicuna. These, however,
did not come into my possession, nor could I obtain any reliable description of them.

[ 85 ]

No. 54.]

MAN.

[1904.

The skull is very small, almost microcephalic, iu fact. In general outline it is
similar to that of the Araucanos, but presents several peculiarities not found in that

race. Although it has a decided tendency
, x /wv'/^n-w to microcephaly, the skull is well de-

N X j A /s\ veloped, and shows a normal corre-

N -Ll^-^ " - \ spondence in all its parts.

Nornla Vertical™ (Fig. 1).— The
outline seen from above is elliptic ; the
91 _ ~ r>\\ curves from the stephania are regular,

~ while the frontal is flattened laterally in

the region of the temporal crests. The
w l \ brow is rather depressed between the
supra-orbital ridges and the frontal
eminences. These latter are lost in the
general outline, but the former are
strongly marked. The skull is fairly
isomm \ pha3nozygous and has a considerable sub-

ix6*~ V nasal prognathism. The squamose edges'

of the temporals are both visible in this
norma, while the parietal eminences are
not noticeable owing to the rounding off
in this region. A pronounced occipital
I / torus breaks an otherwise perfect pos-

► £ ./ terior curve, the lambda being plainly

N ' seen from above. The sutures in this

and all the other norma) are simple, but
fig. l.— norma vebticalis. there is a slight synostosis of the coronal

before it reaches the temporal crests.
Norma Lateralis (Fig. 2). — From the glabella to the metopic point there is a slight
depression of the frontal. From the latter point to the lambda the curve is continuous,
but here the very pronounced occipital torus before mentioned breaks its outline, which
then reassumes its gradual curve
as far as the opisthion.

When placed on a plane
surface the skull rests on the
anterior alveolar border, and the
posterior edge of the foramen
magnum which curves down-
wards. The mastoids are excep-
tionally small ; that on the left
side being hardly at all developed,
and does not reach the plane
mentioned by 15 mm. The other
is a little larger, but still wants
8 mm. to reach the plane.

The forehead is retreating,
the glabello-metopic line forming
an angle of 50 degrees with the
afore-mentioned plane. The nasal
skeleton is flattened and rounded off at the point, and thus has a slightly aquiline
appearance. The fronto-nasal line is only broken by the curve of the glabella, there
being no nasal notch. There is little facial prognathism, but the subnasal projection

[ 86 ]

FIG. 2. — NOHMA LATERALIS.

1904.]

MAN.

[No. 54.

gives a gnathic angle of 70 degrees. The malars are not prominent, a line drawn from the
supra-orbital point to the max illo- malar suture being only 3 degrees oat of the vertical.

The zygomatic portion of the malars is flattened, as are also the squamse of the
temporals and the lower part of the parietals. The sphenoids are greatly scalloped, the
temporal crests firmly outlined in the frontal region but discontinued in the parietals.

Norma Facialis (Fig. 3). — In this norma the skull loses many of its Araucano
characteristics. The shape and proportions of the orbits and the nasal skeleton are
quite distinct, as are also the facial proportions in general. The malars are more
flattened, forming a vertical line from the superior external angle to their lower border,
while in the Araucano this generally has an oblique tendency, the inferior facial diameter
being greater than at the fron to malar suture. This flattening is not only lateral, but also
facial, extending to the max Maries, which are full, and drop straight to the second molar.

The infra-orbital sutures are plainly marked in " pars facialis." The simian grooves
are not so large as in many Araucano skulls.

The orbital cavities are large in proportion to the size of the skull, and are almost square
in form. In the Araucanos the major axes form a very oblique line, often meeting on the
glabella ; here the obliquity is much less,
and the minor axes are almost vertical.

The square outline of the orbits is
broken by the large lachrymaiyb««, but
the bi-dacryc distance is greater than the
size of the skull would seem to warrant
(23 mm.). The nasal bones are long
and narrow, the maxillary apophyses
being small. The apertura piriformis
is heart-shaped, but constricted, and the
nasal index very low (44*6).

The forehead is relatively broad and
sharply defined by the temporal crests.

Taken as a whole the facial portion
of the skull presents few characters of
the Araucanos, but seems to accord most
with those ancient skulls which I have
already described, found near Serena.

Norma Occipitalis. — The outline of
the skull as seen in this norma is that of
a regular arch with vertical walls. The base is also curved, posing only on the leaf-
shaped posterior edge of the foramen magnum. The mastoids are very small and placed
high up, or rather the conceptaculse cerebelli are very voluminous, their downward bulging
bringing the opisthion considerably below the mastoid plane. The occipital torus already
mentioned is strongly marked, the thickness of the skull in this region being 8 mm. There
are no wormian bones, but the par ie to-occipital suture is more complicated than the rest.

The parietal foramina are very small and irregularly placed, one being situated in
the centre of the suture, the other a little to the left. Two other foramina of the
same type appear in this same suture, one about 15 mm. above, and the other about
the same distance below those already mentioned. There is a considerable depression in
the skull in the region of the posterior half of the parietal suture, which terminates
at the lambda, where it is crossed by the occipital torus. The post-zygomatic ridges
are heavily marked, terminating in a supramastoid protuberance, where the greatest
transverse diameter of the skull is found.

Norma Basialis. — The foramen magnum is ovoid in contour, and larger than would
be expected from the small size of the skull. The occipital condyles are small and

[ 87 ]

FIO. 3.— NORMA FACIALIS.

Vo. 64.]

MAN.

[1904.

assymmetrical, one being flattened and the other prominent. The post-condylar foramina
are fairly large, the styloids short and feeble. The meatus audi tonus is placed farther
in than in most races, but is of fair size and well opened.

The palate is parabolic in outline. All the teeth are wanting, but the loss has
been post-mortem as the alveolars are not filled. There are indications of considerable
dental prognathism, but the molars do not seem to have had that inward inclination
so common to the Araucano skulls. The pterygoid plates are small, the " alte " being
only slightly developed.

The general characteristics presented in this norma are not those of the Araucano?,
where the condyles, mastoids, and styloids are usually large and symmetrical.

The skull may be classified as follows : — semi-microcephalic, sub-brachycephalic,
metricephalic, phsenozygous, lightly prosopic, chamrcprosopic, megasemeleptorhine, and
prognathic.

From a close comparison of this skull with others of the different aboriginal races
of Chile, I am rather inclined to the opinion that it represents a mixed type, possibly
that of the Moluches with the prehistoric remains I found near Serena.

As regards the general features of the skull they are timilar to those of the former race,
while the facial portion and basial formations are more like those of the latter, but with
such scanty data at my disposal I would not venture to advance this as an hypothesis.

Measurement.

Sex -

Age -

Diameters.
Anterior- posterior (maximum)
Glabeilo-lambda -
Tran8verso (maximum)
Bi-parietal
Bi-mastoid
Frontal (maximum)
„ (minimum)
Ba3i-bregmatic (height) -
Bi-orbital (external)
., (internal)
Bi-dacr) c
Orbital (length)

„ (breadth) -
Nasal (length) -

„ (breadth)
Basi-nasai
Basi-alveolar
Basi-lambda
Nasi-alveolar
Foramen magnum (length)

tt » (breadth)

Palatal (length)
„ (breadth) -

I 35-40

162 mm.

157 .,

130 „

127 „

132 „

111 „

91 ,.
121 „
108 „

95 „

23 „

38 „

36 „

47 .,
21 ..

92 „
92 „

103 „

«9 ,,

4<> „

34 „

48 „
38 „

Measurement.

—

Bi-jugal -

113 mm.

Bi-zygomatic - -

128 „

Ophryo-alveolar

79 „

Curve*.

Frontal - -

112 „

Parietal -

HI »

Occipital

110 M

Total sagittal (to basion)

373 „

Ml!" *

465 „

„ horizontal

470 „

Supra-auricular - -

306 „

Na8o-malar -

114 „

Indies*.

Cephalic

80-2

Length-height

74-7

Breadth ,. -

93-

Mixed „ -

83-8

Orbi'al

94-7

Nasal

44-6

Staphylinic - -

791

Uranic -

115-4

Facial (Broca)

61-7

„ (Kollmann)

53-9

Naso-malar

110-6

Stephanie -

82-

Frontal

70-

E. E. LATCHAM.

[ 88 ]

1904.1 MAN. [Nos. 55-S6.

Australia. Lang.

New South Wales 8tone Ohuringa. By Andrew Lang. pp

In Native Tribes of Central Australia, p. 150, Messrs. Spencer and Gillen Ov

publish a churinga of very peculiar shape, possibly phallic, "one of the only five

*• churinga of this shape which we have seen amongst a very great number. . . .

44 The churinga was evidently a very old one."

The markings are concentric horse-shoes and a serpentine set of curves. It is a
churinga of the lizard (echunpa) totem.

We have not hitherto heard of stone churinga south> of the central region, but a
friend of mine, who has not studied the subject, found on his station iu New South
Wales a stone object, about 15 inches long, closely resembling the example figured by
Messrs. Spencer and Gillen. The ornament, as usual in the south, consisted of mere
criss-cross lines, deeply cut. From a sketch the thing is erect, without the curve of the
Arunta specimen. My friend writes that on visiting the museum at Sydney recently he
saw there several similar specimens, in shape exactly like that figured by Messrs. Spencer
and Gillen, but all decorated with linear patterns. He learned that these objects
were of unknown use and were chiefly found in the region of New South Wales, where
his station lies. A black fellow, who was disincliued to speak out about the object, if,
indeed, he had any information, was cross-examined. We have not heard of any use of
stone churinga by the blacks of New South Wales. They seem there to be obsolete,
and I think it probable enough that the present Arunta creed as to stone churiugas is,
as it were, a myth explanatory of ancient objects which they find, while they do not
know their original signification. In New South Wales it may be too late to ask
questions. I hope to receive photographs of the specimens in the museum at Sydney.

A. LANG.

REVIEWS.
Arabia. Hogarth.

The Penetration of Arabia. By David George Hogarth, M.A. Forty maps pa
and illustrations. London : Lawrence and Bullen, 1904. Pp. xvi + 359. 00
24 X 13 cm. Price 7*. 6d.

Under the general title of The Story of Exploration, and under the able editorship
of Dr. J. Scott Keltie, the enterprising publishers, Messrs. Lawrence and Bullen, have
undertaken to issue a series of standard works embodying a complete history of
geographical discovery from the earliest records down to the present time. This
attractive programme opens favourably with the almost simultaneous appearance of
Sir H. H. Johnston's The Nile Quest and the volume which is here under considera-
tion, and in the sub-title is accurately described as " a record of the development of
" western knowledge concerning the Arabian Peninsula." In the preface the author
tells us that he has himself no personal acquaintance with the Peninsula, and that
" his sole qualification for writing the story of Arabian exploration rests on a study of the
u literature of Arabian travel, which the fascination of the subject has led him to pursue
" for some years." Those who are familiar with the solid work doue by Mr. Hogarth,
especially in Asia Minor and Crete, and with his Devia Cypria, The Nearer East, and
numerous other scholarly works on the history, geography, and archaeology of the
Levantine lands, will at once understand that the story of Arabian exploration could not
have been placed in more competent hands than those of this profound student of " the
literature of Arabian travel."

This literature ranges from Herodotus through iElius Gallus, Ptolemy, the Arabs
and Varthema, down to Niebuhr, Seetzen, Burckhardt, Burton, Wellsted, Halevy,
Glaser, Sadlier, Palgrave, Euting, Huber, Wallin, Bent, von Wrede, Fresnel, Blunt,
Reinaud, Miles, and the few other modern names that have acquired distinction in this

[ 89 ]

Nos. 56-57.] MAN. [1904.

difficult field of exploration. As was to be expected, the author gives his readers, not
merely a bald statement, but a broad survey and critical appreciation of the actual work
accomplished by them, and, where necessary, of the documents in which that work is
recorded. The result is eminently satisfactory, as we thus get, besides a rather complete
bibliography of the subject, a really trustworthy picture of the physical features, social
institutions, and ethnical relations of the land, presented in the pleasantest possible
manner by following the footsteps of the pioneers themselves in the several regions first
revealed by them. The volume thus becomes something more than an ordinary book of
reference, a sort of vade mecum, what the French call a livre de chevet that the student
likes to have always at hand.

One is glad here to find a thorough vindication of our old friend Ptolemy from the
charge of " fraudulent precision " brought against him by Bunbury, who speaks of the
imposture of filling empty spaces on the Arabian sheet of his atlas with purely fictitious
names assigned with a vain parade of science to imaginary situations. The point is ably
discussed, with the conclusion that to Sprenger belongs " the merit of restoriug, in our
" century of wider knowledge, the credit that Ptolemy enjoyed in the Middle Ages.'*
On the other hand, that erratic genius, W. G. Palgrave, is severely handled, and while
full justice is done to his great qualities as a shrewd observer and brilliant writer, it is
pointed out that he was necessarily biassed by the conditions of his " secret mission,"
hence yielded to the temptation to exaggerate where exaggeration served his purpose.
He is even charged with " vagueness and haste, artificiality, vulgarity, aud a fatuous
" garrulity which is truly Levantine. His 4 Odyssey ' is the antithesis of Dough ty's.
u It is saturated with the man, egotistic from cover to cover, the record of an individual
" and no more than an individual."

Should anyone suspect that this language may be somewhat highly coloured, he
will at any rate subscribe unreservedly to the unstinted praise lavished on the author of
that most wonderful record of travel, the Arabia Descrta. Referring to his amazingly
vivid picture of Arab nomad life, Mr. Hogarth aptly remarks that "of the tenting
44 society in steppes and deserts, which is of one character ail the world over, and
44 changes as little with the procession of centuries as anything human, Doughty's
44 presentment may well be final ; for not only did he see it whole, and despite a certain
44 prejudice against all things Semitic, with a sympathy that has never been excelled,
44 but he has described it in language which with all its untimely elaboration has the
44 precision and inevitableness of supremo style. . . . No word of Doughty's best
44 descriptions of the desert and the desert folk can be spared. Each falls inevitable and
44 indispensable to its place as in all great style ; and each strikes full and true on every
44 reader who has seen, be it ever so little, the dusty steppe aud the black booths of hair."
Quoting these words in a periodical specially consecrated to ethnological studies, I feel
inclined, both for myself personally and on behalf of my fellow anthropologists, to
teuder our warmest thanks to Mr. Hogarth for this generous and eloquent appreciation
of the eminent services rendered to those studies by Charles Montagu Doughty amid the
tented children of the desert. The volume is adorned with a fine portrait of the great
traveller, who here finds himself iu fitting company with Niebuhr, Burckhardt, Walliu,
Halevy, Blunt, aud several others of his illustrious forerunners aud followers in the field
of Arabian exploration. A. H. KEANE.

Africa: Central. Duff.

Nyasaland under the Foreign Office. By H. L. Duff*. London : George r "f

Bell & Sons, 1903. 22 x 15 cm. Pp. xvi + 422, with illustrations and map. Of
One appendix. Price \2s.

There is much in this volume to interest the reader. Nyasaland, as the writer
truly remarks, is a comparatively little known part of our dominions, partly on account

[ 90 ]

1904.] MAN. [Nob. 57-58.

of the peaceful manner in which it has been acquired, and partly because those parts
which are habitable by the white man have hitherto been so inaccessible that few besides
missionaries and adventurers have penetrated to them. Now, however, the railway and
telegraph are opening up the interior, and we may expect the country to advance rapidly
along the road to civilisation during the next few decades. This is the more desirable
if, as Mr. Duff thinks, it is capable of becoming the great agricultural and agrarian
district of the continent. With training, too, the natives promise to become tolerable
farm workers, but for many years to come the government and management of the
country is likely to remain in the hands of the white man owing to the indolence of the
natives.

It is interesting, in view of the heated controversy at present ragiug over the vexed
question of forced labour, to note the unbiassed view taken by a man who has had
intimate personal experience of native methods. Mr. Duff emphasises the incorrigible
indolence of the negro, which makes it necessary to use a certain amount of force in
order to obtain even the minimum of work from him. In these disputes it seems to be
too often forgotten that we have any right to claim even a moderate return for the time,
trouble, and expense that have been ungrudgingly bestowed on the effort to reclaim and
civilise the races under our care. It is time that the public learned to take a reasonable
view of these questions.

There are some interesting chapters on the various races which now inhabit this
part of the country and their relative capabilities. The Angoni, fierce and warlike, have
already been the subject of various writings, but I do not think the Wa-yao and Bantus
are so well known. I am inclined to think that Mr. Duff somewhat underrates the
intelligence of the latter. At auy rate I have heard from other reliable sources that they
are not only eager students but in many cases show a decided turn for mechanics, and a
fair amount of inventiveness. They are also capable of making very fair teachers,
though in all these directions they naturally require a good deal of supervision as yet.
The finest races, he tells us, make excellent soldiers, delighting in drill exercises and having
great endurance and hardiness as well as plenty of courage. Probably their cheerful
temperament and affectionate and sociable disposition also tell in this direction, while
the necessary training in order and method may lead the way to the exercise of these
qualities in other callings. Mr. Duff also points out that the Bantu negroes, almost
alone among the dark races of mankind, not only survive the invasion of whites, but
even thrive and increase. That this is not owing simply to their fine physique is
evident from comparing them with the Maories, who, though quite equal to them
physically and, I believe, superior in other respects, yet require to be preserved as
carefully as game to prevent their total extinction.

Among the most interesting chapters in the book are those dealing with the fauna
and flora. Indeed, the reader's chief regret is likely to be that Mr. Duff has not dealt
more fully with these subjects and avoided that of politico-economical history, in which
he does not seem to be very deeply versed. To return to the fauna ; we are to some
extent already familiar with these from the accounts of previous travellers, but the flora
have, so far as I can recollect, received hitherto but scanty attention, and we would bo
glad of a more accurate and detailed description of them.

The illustrations from the author's sketches are satisfactory. R. W. FELKIN.

Africa, South. Kidd.

The Essential Kafir. By Dudley Kidd. London : A. & C. Black, 1904. tO
Pp. xv + 436, with 100 full-page illustrations. 23 x 16 cm. Price 18$. uet. "^

If Mr. Kidd could congratulate himself on nothiug else he could justly say that he
has given us a book which, for its illustrations alone, should And a place in the book-
case of every anthropologist and every student of human nature. No one can look

[ 91 ]

No. 68.] MAN. [1904.

through the really splendid series of pictures, so admirably reproduced, without feeling
that he has been brought as near to our black fellow subjects as, without a journey to
South Africa, he can ever expect to be. We have, however, far more than a series of
pictures. Mr. Kidd has spent a dozen years or more in travelling about South Africa,
and has on his journeys recorded in his note- books what he has seen of the natives and
learnt from them and those who lived among them and knew them best. The result
is a work which will interest the general reader, and with reservations be a useful
handbook for the anthropologist.

Mr. Kidd's use of the term Kafir is peculiar. He tells us in his preface that it
includes all the black races and is "equivalent to the word Bantu" He actually
extends it to cover the San and Khoi-khoin. Mr. Kidd does not, however, profess to
give us an anthropological work, and a slip of this sort may be excused.

Our author has not confined himself to collection of information. He has studied
the literature of his subject, at any rate, so far as it is in French and English, but
curiously enough gives few or no references. The works of Fritsch and the German
missionaries are, of course, indispensable to a complete study of the subject, and it is
unfortunate that they were not consulted.

When Mr. Kidd approaches the domain of the anthropologist he is, as might be
expected, sometimes at fault. He has not much of value to say on the origin of
avoidance nor on communal marriage. In discussing burial rites he questions the
statement that articles are broken when they are deposited in the grave, in order that
they may be available for use in the spirit life, holding that the theory is too fine-spun
for the Kafir's brain. Now, it is indisputable that in many cases the dead man's
possessions are expressly stated to be destroyed for this purpose. In the second place,
if the view held by Mr. Kidd, that the objects are broken to prevent their use in witch-
craft, were correct there would be no object in laying them in the grave.

In the Golden Bough (III., 410) Dr. Frazer has called attention to a conflict of
testimony on the subject of the idhlozi, or snake form of the ancestral spirits. Mr. Kidd
coufirms the account given by most authors and says that the spirit, of a dead man after
death enters into his cattle, and from them passes into the snake in which the Amadhlozi
(sic) is supposed to live (p. 251). On au earlier page of the book (p. 85) Mr. Kidd
mentions an interesting belief, which seems to be in couflict with the usual native
view and to be hardly reconcilable with their custom of sparing those snakes only which
are found near the kraal. A native to whom a snake was pointed out was asked,
fc * What would happeu to your ancestor if I were to kill it inadvertently ? " The man
replied that the ancestors do not live in individual snakes but in the genus. If this is
the genuine native belief, it briugs the idhlozi animal nearer the totem than has been
hitherto recognised. Like the Betsiieos, the Kafir believes that the kind of snake varies
according to the status of the dead person. Chaka inhabits a boa constrictor (p. 85,
but on this point testimony varies ; MS. notes penes me make him enter a small snake),
other chiefs, mambas ; lesser fry, small snakes ; and women, sleepy fat old lizards. We
cannot, therefore, connect the belief in its present form with totemism. It may, on the
other hand, be a development from it, like the analogous belief of the Betsiieos.

Mr. Kidd is very sceptical as to the powers of witch-doctors, and will not admit the
existence of abuormal psychical phenomena as an explanation of them. Iu the case of
Leslie's eight huuters, whose fate and fortunes were correctly described by a diviner, he
inclines to the view that the information was pieced together and eked out by clever
guessing. If no well-observed cases nearer home were available, Mr. Kidd's theory
might be accounted not improbable. Other cases are, however, recorded (Brintou,
Myths*, 311), where guessing will hardly explain the facts without doing violence to
all probability. Mr. Andrew Lang, too, and other acute observers have given a sufficient
number of cases of crystal gazing to make the coincidence theory virtually impossible.

[ 92 ]

1904.] MAN. [Nob. 58-60.

At the same time it is not necessary to go so far as Mr. Douglas Blackburn and
Mr. H:igh Clifford (Spectator, September 1902) in the attribution of occult powers to
lower races. N. W. T.

Melos. Atkinson: Bosanquet.

Excavations at Phylakopi in Melos. Conducted by the British School at r ft
Athens under the direction of T. D. Atkinson, R. C. Bosanquet, and others. %)lj
With 41 plates and 193 illustrations in the text. London : Macmillan and Co., 1904.
29 x 20 cm. Price 30*. net.

This work, the fourth supplementary paper issued by the Society for Promotion of
Hellenic Studies, describes the results of important excavations, carried on from 1896
to 1899 by members of the British School at Athens, at Phylakopi on the N.E.
coast of Melos. Three settlements can be traced. The uppermost or latest town has
the remains of a Mycenaean palace of the usual type, and imported Mycenaean pottery
here abounds ; the middle settlement shows native pre-Mycensean civilisation at its
highest point. The lowest stratum yielded quantities of early pottery, ranging from
primitive hand-made to painted geometric ware.

Two or three finds are of exceptional interest. On Plate III. a fragmentary wall-
painting is reproduced in colours. It represents part of an extremely beautiful frieze of
flying fish, and is one of the finest specimens of Mycenaean art 60 far discovered.
Another striking object is a vase with a design representing a procession of fishermen.
It is a characteristic example of Mycena3an style and is to some extent paralleled by an
engraved gem in the British Museum. A bronze statuette, probably imported into
Melos from Crete, is also of considerable interest.

The most important part of the finds, taken as a whole, was the pottery, which was
obtained in enormous quantities. Mr. Edgar has devoted much labour to its classifica-
tion, and his conclusion is that the bulk of it is of Melian manufacture.

Melos must have owed much of its importance in prehistoric times to its wealth in
obsidian. Probably it had a practical monopoly of the obsidian trade in the JEge&u.
Mr. Bosanquet discusses this subject in an interesting chapter.

Iu the final chapter of the book Mr. Duncan Mackenzie deals with the relation
borne by the Phylakopi settlements to the early civilisation of the iEgeau islands and
more particularly to that of Crete. He believes that the evidence points to the existence
of an ^Egean League, in which Melos must have played a prominent part, though the
headship would have belonged to Crete. The decline and fall of this league was
probably due to overwhelming pressure from the mainland of Greece, which, in its turn,
was caused by invasion from the uorth.

It is impossible iu a short uotice of this kind to do justice to the many features of
interest contained in this work. Suffice it to say that it is a most valuable addition to
our knowledge of pre-Mycenaeau civilisation. F. H. M.

Technology. • Bourdeau.

Histoire de V Habillement et de ia Parure. By Louis Bourdeau. Paris : nft
Felix Alcan, 1904. Pp. 302. 22 x 14 cm. Price 6 francs. OU

The most recent volume of the Bibliothhque Scientific ue Internationale is a
pleasantly- written history of clothiug and ornament by M. Louis Bourdeau. A book
covering this ground is needed, as the subjects dealt with are of considerable importance
in the history of mau, but to do them justice far more space is necessary than is here
allotted to them, and also, it must be confessed, far more knowledge of ethnology than
the author appears to possess. Ethnologists will not fiud much that is of use to them
in the book, and from its necessary sketchy character and the absence of illustrations
aud index it is not quite evident for whom it would be of use. The author begins with

[ 93 ]

Nob. 60-62.] MAN. [1904.

Genesis, quotes Greek and Roman authors, and, glancing at intermediate periods, finishes
with modern industrialism, making allusions by the way to non-European peoples of
varied culture. The author is apparently unaware of the practice of tatooing among
the Roman Catholic women of Bosuia and Herzegovina ; he confuses Polynesians
and Melanesians, and does not allude to the magical aspect of personal decoration.

A. C. H.

Evolution. " Semi-Darwinian."

Doubts about Dancinism. By a " Semi-Darwinian." London : Longmans, A4
1903. Pp. vi + 115. 22 x 15 cm. 01

The " semi-Darwinian " author of this little book writes in a broad and tolerant
spirit often wanting in works with a similar aim. His acquaintance with natural
selection is not very intimate, and he is oppressed with the weight of difficulties, many
of which are capable of a reasonable solution.

In the general introduction it is explained that the Darwinian theory as a whole is
not attacked but that reasons will be adduced for doubting its adequacy. It is here
erroneously stated that Darwin never expressed any private opinion upon the origin of
the lowest and simplest organisms. More than one deeply-iuteresting criticism of
" abiogenesis " is to be found in his letters.

The first part of the book is completed in the three following chapters, entitled
respectively, " Spontaneous Generation," " On the Dawn of Consciousness," and on the
" Peopling of the Earth by an Aerolite." These titles are probably sufficient to indicate
the point of view from which the subject is approached, as well as the kind of reasons
which induce the author to describe himself as a " Semi-Darwinian."

Just as the first part relies upon difficulties — admitted difficulties and gaps in our
knowledge — concerning the origin of life, so the second part is founded, upou the
44 Mystery of Reproduction," the " Care for Offspring," the " Formation of New Organs
and Structures," " Instinct," " Electric Fishes," &c. But here the author fails to do
justice to natural selection, not from any lack of fairness, but because he has not realised
the explanation which it affords. The maternal instinct offers to him a difficulty,
because he has uever grasped the fact that natural selection regards the species rather
than the individual. So, too, in discussing the origin of new structures no reference is
made to the potent principle of " change of function," which we owe to Auton Dohrn.
It may be at once admitted that several problems, such as those presented by electric
fishes, are full of difficulty, but our insufficient knowledge cannot be erected as a barrier
to limit the scope of natural selection. It has been already pointed out that other
supposed difficulties are even now capable of a perfectly reasonable interpretation.

E. B. P.

Anthropometry. Boas.

Statistical Study of Anthropometry. By Franz Boas in American Physical £f*
Education Review (pp. 174-180). OZ

In this paper Dr. Boas makes some suggestions as to the utilisation of the large
number of measurements which have been taken in American gymnasia. He points out
that from the nature of the case they must in general represent a somewhat pathological
type, whereas the ideal type would only be obtained in individuals with a perfect health
record. Consequently the subjects ought to be classified according to the health records.
Also they should be divided into groups according to age and development, and further
differentiated by their original European race-stocks. In the present state of knowledge
this is hardly possible, but as the correlation of measurements even in a miscellaneous
series may lead to the detection of divergent types, such an analysis of correlations is
recommended. Also as " the anthropometrical problem is not a statical one ^but [a

[ w J

1904.] MAN. [Nob. 62-64.

dynamical one," the changes in individuals deserve to be recorded, and the author
advises repeated measurements of the same subjects at different periods. Finally, he
raises a question of great importance in regard to the correlation of features, when he
states that " the most frequent types, and for this reason the types which we must
" consider as inside the limits of physiological variations, are not by any means those
" which in all respects are enlarged or reduced replicas of the average type, but such
" that deviate more or less from this type in regard to a few measurements only."

D. RANDALL-MACIVER.

Craniology. Boas.

Heredity in Head Form. By Franz Boas in American Anthropologist, Vol. 5, aa
No. 3 (pp. 530-538). Lancaster, Pa., 1903. DO

This paper is a valuable investigation upon the applicability of Mendel's law of
alternative inheritance to the head form in mankind. The material was furnished by
the measurements of Dr. Maurice Fishberg on forty-eight families of East European
Jews, which enabled Dr. Boas to study the relation between the variability of children
and the differences between the parental couples in series which, though small, were yet
sufficient to yield suggestive results. The analysis is expressed through the medium of
such algebraic symbols as are ordinarily employed in work of this kind, and the
conclusion is that heredity of the cephalic index in individuals of the same race does not
depend on the mid-parental value of the iudex, but that one half of the children resemble
in regard to this trait the father and the other half the mother. Or more exactly, " one
" half of the children of a couple belonging to a certain race have a type the average of
" which is equal to the average of twice the father's type and once the racial type,
" while the other half have an average equal to twice the mother's type and once the
" racial type."

The concluding paragraph of the paper shows a scientific sanity foreign to some
biometricians on this side of the Atlantic, and deserves quotation : " The data here
u given do not show what the laws of heredity of the cephalic index may be where
" father and mother belong to different races. It must also be remembered that other
" measurements may follow different laws." D. RANDALL-MACIVER.

England: Neolithic. Johnson: Wright.

Neolithic Man in North-East Surrey. By Walter Johnson and William *\m
Wright. London : E. Stock, 1903. Pp. viii + 200. 24 X 16cm. Price 6*. Ot 1
The title chosen for this little book seems -precise and definite enough, but the
matter is of a most miscellaneous character, including notices of Shrove Tuesday ball-
play iu Surrey, and a vast number of other matters equally irrelevant. The book, in
short, is a medley of ill-digested, ill-arranged, and some more or less misleading state-
ments, although it is impossible to read its pages without feeling that the authors might
have done much better work if they had exercised greater care both in the treatment of
the subject and in the selection of the material. We confess to a feeling of disappoint-
ment after reading the authors' account of the interesting discovery of underground
chambers at Waddon, a discovery which one would be inclined to regard as of first rate
importance for the purpose of such a book as this. Another branch of the subject has
been much neglected. We refer to the marks of wear arising from use, and the
characteristics of fractures in stoue implements. Much has already been made out
by a careful study of these features, and doubtless much remains to be discovered.
The book is readable, but poorly illustrated, aud of small scientific value.

GEORGE CLINCH.

[ 95 ]

Nob. 65-66.] MAN. [1904.

Man : Prehistoric. Zaborowski.

V Homme prehistorique : Bibliothhque utile* cxxv., par S. Zaborowski. Sep- ap
tieme edition enlinement refondue. Paris : A lean. N.D. 15 x 10 cm. Pp.187, DO
with figures in the text. Price 60 centimes.

The name of the author of this little book is a sufficient guarantee of its excellence,
and it may be cordially recommended as an introduction to the study of prehistoric
anthropology, summarising as it does the results of investigation in the questions of the
physical character and culture of prehistoric man. The statements of fact are clear and
concise, while in dealing with controversial matters, M. Zaborowski has placed before
his readers the chief points at issue and the principal arguments with commendable
brevity and impartiality. Since the first edition was published some twenty-four years
ago an enormous mass of evidence, entailing a vast amount of discussion, has accu-
mulated. M. Zaborowski has incorporated the chief points in his seventh edition in
such a manner as to give due prominence to matters of importance without over-
burdening his narrative with a mass of confusing detail, although perhaps it might
appear to some that it would have been profitable tp deal with particular points a little
more fully than has been done. E. N. F.

PROCEEDINGS OF SOCIETIES.
London. Anthropological Institute.

Ordinary Meeting, Tuesday, March 8th. Mr. C. H. Read, F.S.A., Vice- aa
President, in the chair. DQ

Mr. Charles H. Hawes, M.A., delivered a lecture on " The Gilyaks and other
Natives of Sakhalin," and illustrated his remarks with numerous lantern slides. The
paper was discussed by Professor Gowland.

Ordinary Meeting, Tuesday, April 26th. Colonel Sir T. H. Holdich, K.C.M.G.
K.C.I.E., &c, Vice-President, in the Chair.

Professor W. Ridgeway, M.A., delivered a lecture on " The Origin of Jewellery,"
which he illustrated with an interesting exhibition of specimens. The paper was
discussed by Messrs. G. L. Gomrae, O. M. Daltou, N. W. Thomas, M. L. Dames, and
Sir Thomas Holdich.

Ordinary Meeting, Tuesday, May 10th. Mr. H. Balfour, M.A., President, in the
chair.

The election of Messrs. Taylor-Hancock, W. S. Barclay, A. S. Quick, and W. S.
Routledge as Ordinary Fellows of the Institute was announced.

Major P. H. G. Powell-Cotton delivered a lecture on " Some Little-Known Tribes
of Northern Uganda," which he illustrated with a large and interesting collection of
specimens and with many lantern slides.

The paper was discussed by Mr. Routledge. Dr. Garsou, Dr. Shrubsall, and the
President.

Ordinary Meeting, Tuesday, May 21th. Professor W. Gowlaud, F.S.A., in the
chair.

The election of Mr. W. T. Greenstreet, M.A., as an Ordinary Fellow of the
Institute was announced.

Mr. E. F. Martin exhibited a large collection of native objects from Northern
Nigeria.

The Rev. C. T. Collyer, F.R.G.S., delivered a lecture on "Korea and its People,"
illustrated by lantern slides. The paper was discussed by Dr. Garson, Mr. Tabor, and
the Chairman.

Printed 1 by Eyre axd Spottiswoode, His Majesty's Printers, East Harding Street, E.C.

ROWING BOAT OF 20 OARS AND WARRIORS

METAL BOWL OF VI. DYNASTY S45,

EXCAVATIONS AT BENI-HASAN

1904.]

MAN.

[No. 67.

ORIGINAL ARTICLES.
Egypt, Beni-Hasan. With Plate Q. Garstangr.

Excavations at Beni-Hasan in Upper Egypt (Second Season), tyj
By John Qarstangf B.A.< BJAU* % F*8mA* 9 Reader fa Egyptian Arch n Of

tin 1 ■</

»f Man for July and September of last vest contained ptelimjni
notices of the ofa the 1 tmmittec <i in

hand in i When work: renamed early [n December lust, it was found that

the character of the necropolis .is it had appeared the former well maintained.

It whs a burying place for the officials and upper classes of that pur of Egypt 'hiring

but more generally n
of Flie XL and X II. Dynasties. Its central date is somewhat before 2000 B.C. and
its range "(covers a period of several centuries. It seems to bridge over any gap
between the VI. and XI. I §; and disputes the existence, for the Oryx Nome

m any rate, of any indepi VII., \ 'III., IX., aud X. Dynasties as tradition has

brought these down. From archaeological end rations it nnisf ep]

probi these tour dynasties represent four independent centres of feudal poi

BOOS, or nearly so, with one another and with portions of the VI.
XL Dyi of Memphis sod Thebes The whole

range of Egj "deration much less than tradition

in.

Locally it was found the custom that interment in rock-hewn tombs is at least
as early be archaic period and the rise of the Pyramid age, aboot the

IIL Dynasty. A whole range of small tombs was examined in the cliffs far back in the
desert above the cluster of bottsefl known as Nuerat, some three or four miles north of
Bent-Heeeifc These were uniform in general design. A very email squared chamber

.1 ej rover for a shallow pit which desponded within to a depth of ubout two DM I
This widened at the bottom to a small chamber, usually at the northern end. In tlm

the coffin, which in two cases observed was of pottery, similar to that pictured
ii. No. 925, and in another case was of wood, with pauelled east face, In each

the coffin was so small thnt the burial was perforce contracted in the archaic
fashion, SJ the picture shows. The body does not seem to have beeu preserved in any
way, hut it was covered by, or wrapped in, a linen cloth.

The next epoch, the Pyramid age, or Old Empire, or Memphite period, as it is
variously call nted by a row of tombs similarly hewn in the rock, but in this

case about two miles to the south of the better known necropolis, and just to the south
die fipeos Arteuiido*. Here, similarly placed Wt*U up the cliff, the chambers were-
hirger, and one at least is inscribed. The shafts are also longer though not usually any
deeper. A preference now shows itself for making the burial recess partly under the
side of the shaft — an observation confirmed in widely separated burying places of
the period. In one tomb, which had escaped re bricked Up, and

withitt, on tie [do, was a plain thick wood coffin. the north end of the

sarcophagus and the rock facing the east was a small wood, two feet high, of a

man in the well-known OOftnOM Slid attitude of the Miekh-el-Beled. At the foot, OS
the east side, were some pottery vase-, and within the coffin the Ixnly lay in remark
preservation, head north, face partly east.

The Feudal period sees the necropolis beginning to
cliff of Beni-Hasan, two miles north of the modem Village. It! Igly,

in the VL Dynsf I row of small rock tombs similar In form ami arrangement

iu those last described, at the foot of the steeper slope of the cliff, about one-third up

i. Some eight or ten of these were constructed, aud two of them were inscribed.
The one showed a name compounded of Pepy, and the other the name of APA, aa

[ 97 ]

No. 67.] MAN. [1904.

Erpa-ha. Within the latter was found an undisturbed deposit of the pointed alabaster
vases characteristic of the period. The great Feudal chieftains of this and neighbouring
provinces next began to build their massive tombs in the rock higher up the slope, while
their courtiers and officials dug their tomb-shafts on the slope of the cliff before them.
The character of these great tombs was an elaboration of the earlier ones. Architectural
features, particularly the column and portico, were now introduced in the rock tombs.
The conventional agricultural or religious incident which had formed the subject for mural
decoration led on to the representation of scenes full of detail and incident of daily life,
which are, indeed, a chief source of knowledge of the life and culture of the age. The
tomb-shaft now has deepened, for security of the burial ; and in all probability the
funereal customs of the time were those which the general necropolis has so fully
illustrated, as described in the numbers of Max already quoted.

The conspicuous feature of these Middle Empire burials was the deposit of wooden
models within the funeral chamber. A further series of undisturbed tombs has confirmed
the first impression that the customary objects were a rowing boat, a sailing boat, a
granary, a baking and a brewing scene, and sometimes a sacrifice. These types were
varied either by some detail, as the addition of a soldier with a battle-axe and shield in
tomb 585 (Plate G), or by some different or additional object, such as the wooden
portrait statue numbered 720. This exquisite object is only some 7 or 8 in. high, but
the skill of the sculptor has created a work as impressive for the sense of fidelity in the
portrait as it is remarkable for minuteness of detail. It was, unfortunately, in several
pieces when taken from a disturbed tomb.

Sometimes the models were replaced by real objects, as in the battle-axe (No. 511),
the arrows (723), and the metal bowls (845), illustrated in the Plate aud in Fig. 1.

In the first of these objects the blade is inserted at
three points into metal rings around the staff, to
which it is then tied. The end of the handle was
bound also with a cap of metal. The arrows lay
with a long bow and complete deposit of models
upon the coffin of a mer per named APA. The
Fig. 1. arrows are tipped in some cases with small sharp

metal bowl of vi. dvnasty. pieces of fliut, and are each provided with three

feathers. The notch is deep, and the string of
the bow was seemingly twisted skin or gut.

Another object of interest, not figured in the Plate, is a reed used for separating the
warp in weaving. It works in the sley behind the healds. Two such were found,
similar in every respect, except the exact length, to one which was seen in use in the
modern village of Abu-kirkas across the river and secured for purposes of comparison.
The general principle of these reeds is in every respect the same as that in use in the
weaving sheds of Lancashire to-day. [These and a selection of all the objects excavated
will be exhibited during July in the rooms of the Society of Antiquaries, by courteous
permission of the Council.]

The history of Beni-Hasan from the end of the Feudal period is almost a blank till
the close of the Theban rule. The Hyksos period and the great Imperial period are
hardly represented. The Speos Artemidos is almost aloue for an interval of nearly
1,000 years ; aud it is significant that it is not until the general decentralisation of
power about the XXII. Dynasty that a sign of local activity reshows itself. This age
of Ethiopian, Libyan, and Assyrian, is represented by a considerable necropolis near to
the Speos Artemidos, from which some characteristic fuuereal objects were recovered.

The concluding item of the season's work was the re-excavation of the royal tomb
of Negadeh of the I. Dynasty. Its chief result was the discovery of the missing
portion of the ivory tablet of Mena, a duplicate of the same, and three other small

[ 98 ]

1904.] MAN. [Nob. 67-68.

tablets of Baui, Narraer (? Bezau) and Neithhetep respectively, as well as carved objects
in crystal, obsidian, diorite, ivory, aud other materials, with numerous seal-impressions.

JOHN GARSTANG.

Totemism. Thomas.

Arunta Totemism : a Note on Mr. Lang's Theory. By N. W. aq
Thomas, M.A. DO

On the subject of the connection of the churinga with Arunta totemism I have no
counter theory to propose, and, perhaps, Mr. Lang's suggestion that rites of burial had
some influence is not improbable. I can hardly, however, accept the view that the
chance discovery of churinga associated with ancient burying places was in itself enough
to subvert previously existing ideas as to the descent of the totem. The marks on the
churinga arc variously interpreted by different kins, and it is difficult to see how the
discovery of churinga would under these circumstances cause a change in the rule of
descent, whether we assume it to have taken place under matri- or patrilineal conditions.
The spirits waiting to be re-born must have been recognised as having, independently of
the churinga, which could give no clue as to their kin-provenience, a local habitation
and a name, before the belief that conception had taken place in a particular locality
could produce the results attributed to it.

The steps by which the Arunta reached their theory of totemism, and dissociated
the totem from any share in the regulation of marriage, are, I conceive, as follows. The
Adelaide tribe held that the spirits of the dead went to Pindi, the western land, by some
authorities translated — with less probability — " the deep." At some period they returned
from Pindi to be re-born, aud in the interval took up their abode in trees (Tasm. Journal,
I., 64), We have, so far as I know, no information as to the rules of descent in this tribe,
and their nature can therefore be no more than a conjecture. Whether any particular
tree was selected by the soul is also a matter of uncertainty. There are, however, a
few facts which favour the supposition that it was a tree near the place of death.
When the body was lifted upon the bier, the ground (wingkongga) on which the man
had died was dug up by his wives, or by women related to him, with their long sticks.
A little heap of earth was thus formed, supposed to contain the wingko or breath that
had left the body, which their digging is intended to set free. After various ceremonies
of a kind commonly found in Australia, intended to discover by divination the sorcerer
who caused the death of the deceased, the bearers, if there happened to be large trees in
the neighbourhood, walked up quickly to one and then another, resting the bier against
them on each occasion. By degrees they worked away from the place of death and at last
walked off to a distant locality (Woods, Native Tribes, p. 164). The interpretation of this
ceremony must, of course, be very uncertain, but it seems possible that the future ngirra
tree was thus selected.

The divinatory ceremonies mentioned above consisted in the rotation of the bier,
composed of ten or twelve branches arranged like the spokes of a wheel ; these were
carried each by one man. and one man supported the " hub " of the structure on his head ;
the men, who faced in different directions, revolved rapidly with the centre man as a
pivot, and the latter after each act of rotation asked the deceased who had killed him, &c.
It seems just possible that one object of these ceremonies was to allow the deceased to
select the future resting-place of his soul.

A stage beyond this, at any rate from the point of view of the definiteness of our in-
formation, we find the Arunta of Finke River living between the Luritcha and the Arunta
Ilpma. They have churinga but do not seem to associate them with any idea of re-birth.
They make a grave with a lateral chamber (like the Semang of the Malay peninsula) with
the idea of preventing the spirit of the dead man from being incommoded by the weight
of earth and thus being compelled to leave prematurely for his tmara altjira, by which

[ 99 ]

No. 68.] MAN. [1904.

they understand the place where his mother was born. The souls of infauts are supposed
to dwell in trees, whither they are carried by the good mountain spirits, tuanjiraka, and
their wives, melbata. The tree nearest to a woman when she feels the first pains of
parturition she calls ngirra % and believes that the soul euters her child from that tree
{Trans. R. S. S. A., XIV., 237). It will hardly be rash to argue from the foregoing
account by the Rev. L. Schulze that (1) the souls thus re-born are those of the dead who
have previously come from their grave to the spot in question ; (2) that the belief arose
when the tribe was matrilineal.

Now, if the woman were in the neighbourhood of the ngirra tree by chance only
and a particular soul had a particular tree for its habitat, a little reflection would convince
the black that the doctrine of hereditary totems could not be upheld unless the individual
could in a new incarnation change his totem. Once it was decided that the totem was an
inseparable soul element, the obvious conclusion was that, if re-birth was a fact,
the child could not follow the kin of either mother or father except by chance. If the
prospective mother were guided to the correct tree, or if the souls were allowed a certain
amount of choice and, by playing a sort of spiritual " puss in the corner," could get into
the right mother, this conclusion might be avoided for the time. But here, too, unless the
intending mother took precaution to make enquiries in the districts they proposed to visit,
an Emu woman might find herself in the locality where there had been a run on Emu
souls. If Emu souls were " off," she would perforce, if time pressed, take the first soul
handy, and the doctrine of descent would be upset.

It seems, therefore, probable that the belief in re-birth, associated with a
localised habitat of the disembodied soul, would be sufficient to bring about a change in
the belief as to the hereditary character of the totem.

The question of how the totem ceased to play a part in the regulation of marriage
does not seem to present any great difficulty. In the large number of tribes the totemic
code is veiled, so to speak, by the phratriac or the class code ; occasionally, even among
tribes with class organisation, the totemic code plays its part, either in conjunction with
or independently of the class system ; but as a rule the prohibition to marry one of the
same totem is only prominent where the class system does not exist. The totemic
prohibition plays no part in the ordinary tribe, divided into two phratries, with or
without classes, because the kins are arranged in one or other phratry, and virtually
never appear in both (there are exceptions but hardly sufficiently well authenticated).
If, however, the descent of the totem no longer follows the same rule as that of the class
or phratry, it is clear that, so long as the class system is in full vigour, and especially
where the totem has hitherto been a negligeable factor in marriage rules, marriage will
probably continue to be regulated by the class. If there is a clear consciousness of the
totemic prohibition as implicitly contained in the phratry or class prohibition, there might
be a subsidiary set of rules, but where the ordinary rule of descent of the totem has been
abrogated, we should hardly expect that a totemic prohibition would form part of
marriage regulations.

The origin of totemic exogamy is a matter of dispute ; but it can hardly be denied that
it is in many cases of very subsidiary importance. That this is the case may be inferred
from the rules of avoidance. Most, if not all, theories of avoidance have overlooked the
fact that although the actual mother-iu-law must be avoided, it is, in some cases at least,
only as one of an inter-marrying class. The bearing of this fact on the origin of
avoidance is complicated by the theory of group marriage ; but for our present purpose
the important point is that there does not seem to be any trace of preferential treatment
on totemic lines of members of the forbidden classes among the Australian tribes, whose
totemic abnormalities require explanation. The younger sister or brother must avoid
one another, but the brother and elder sister, though of the same totem, may converse
freely {Horn Exped., IV., 166), and this though women of the same class as the husband

[ 100 ]

1904.] MAN. [Nos. 68-69.

may not visit a married man's camp except in the absence of the husband. If totem
tabus are of this subordinate nature we may, perhaps, not unfairly regard the possibility
of intra-kin marriage among the Arunta as a simple corollary of the change in the rule
of descent.

The change in the rules of descent seems to have been initiated and probably,
completed during the matrilineal stage. The aggregation of a tribe into local totem
groups is commonly regarded as a result of patrilineal descent, and it might be argued
that the Arunta must therefore have emerged from the matrilineal stage before the totem
ceased to be hereditary. But in the first place, the process by which patrilineal descent
brings about local totem groups is hardly clear in all its steps ; and in the second place,
the Intichiuma ceremonies of the Arunta and neighbouring tribes would tend to bring about
the same result, and may well have done so after the totem ceased to be hereditary.

The question of how the totem causes to be derived from the father instead of the
mother has hardly been examined from the savage point of view, so far as I know.
The process by which the change is brought about and the explanation given by the
people themselves might, if studied in detail, throw some light on savage theories of
totemism.

The subject of the connection of the churinga with Arunta totemism is one that
lends itself rather to ingenious speculation, stimulated by the knowledge that refutation
of one's guesses is probably impossible, than to demonstration of any order of exactness.
If Mr. Lang's graveyard theory is correct we might explain the churinga, like the
penitah of the Sakai, as a sort of celestial passport. We know little about Australian
ideas of a future life, but the facts do not seem to exclude the suggested explanation.
In this case we need hardly suppose that a vanished race had anything to do with the
matter ; the Arunta themselves may have held this belief. Another possibility is that
this churinga was, like the wingkongga, the resting place of the soul, and was for this
reason buried with the body and discarded when the reincarnation took place. While
this explains the supposed finding of the disused churinga, we have at present no
evidence that churinga proper are or were 'ever buried. Unless this was so the
suggested explanation could hardly hold good. N. W. THOMAS.

England : Archaeology. Ashby.

Excavations at Oaerwent In Monmouthshire. By Thomas Ashby, aq

Jun., M.A. y F.S.A. OvJ

The name of Venta Silurum is not prominent in the written history of Britain in
Roman times. It is only mentioned twice in ancient authorities. In the 14th iter of
the Antonine Itinerary it figures as the first station from Isca Silurum (Caerleon),
which lies 9 miles further west, on the road to Silchester by way of Bath ; that is, as a
station on the route from London to South Wales — the route which, until July of last
year, was still the most direct by rail. And it also occurs in the catalogue of cities and
camps of Britain given by the geographer of Bavenna. But the indication given by
the Itinerary, and the persistence of the modern name Caer Went are sufficient to
warrant the identification. The name Land of Gwent, in fact, is still applied to the
surrounding district, but its meaning is much disputed.

An inscription recently discovered in the centre of the Roman town, though not in
its original position, has thrown a great deal of light on the condition of Caerwent in the
Roman period. The text runs as follows (the first line being lost and the reading in
the second being uncertain) : — ... LEG(ato) LEG(ionis) I[i] AVG(usta3)
PROCONSVL(i) PROVJNC(iae) NARBONENSIS LEG(ato) AVG(usti) PR(o)
PR(«tore) PROVI(ncia3) LVGVDVNEN(««) EX DECRETO ORDINIS
RESPVBL(ica) CIVIT(atis) SILVRVM.

[ 101 ]

No. 69.] MAN. [1»04.

The monument* was thus erected to an unknown ex-commander of the second
legion, which was stationed at Caerleon, who afterwards governed the provinces of
Gallia Narbonensis and Lugudunensis, and this was done, by decree of the "county
council, 1 ' by the community of the Silures. The inscription shows that Caerwent was
the chief town of the canton of the Silures, the old tribal organisation being retained,
but under the Roman nomenclature. This was the case in Gaul, too, where, as is
well known, almost all the modern town names (except in the Rhone Valley), which
have lasted on from Roman times, are the names of the tribes who made those towns
their centres. (See an article in the Athenaeum, September 26th, 1903, p. 420, by
Mr. F. Haverfield.)

The knowledge that Caerwent was a Roman site has never been lost. The walls
of the city are not only clearly traceable, but actually preserved above ground to a
considerable height, especially on the south side. Three towers have been added to
the wall on this side, near the south-west angle. The fact that their masonry is not
bonded in to that of the wall shows that they are later additions, and excavations have
revealed the fact that the upper portion at least was hollow, i.e., that they were not
merely solid buttresses to strengthen the wall. Of the gates, the south is the only one
of which some part is not actually preserved, while the north is in a very fine state of
preservation.! It has been cleared out in the course of the present excavations.

The roadway was found at some period to have been raised about 3 feet, and at a
still later period (but probably still during the Roman occupation) it was closed, and an
aperture formed which perhaps served as an outlet for drainage, less probably as a
postern for foot passengers. The iuner side of the gate is interesting, with the passage-
way (whether for water or for human beings) leading down to it, and the stones which
have been used to block it partially, one of which is the capital of a column, while
others seem to have belonged to the piers of the gate itself.

The wall was not, however, the earliest defence of Caerwent. It has been discovered
that before the wall was built the city was protected by a mound of hard red clay, the
clay of the district, taken no doubt from the fosse, which fosse may or may not have
served later for the wall (for though the wall had a fosse of its own, we do not yet know
whether they are identical or not, whether the wall stands in the fosse of the mound, or
a certain way above it, so that the same ditch might have been used for both, though
the latter seems by far the most probable). And this fact, together with the rectangular
shape of the place and the size of it has led to the conjecture that Caerwent may have
had a military origin — may, in fact, have been the camp occupied by the second legion
before it moved to Caerleon, where there is no direct evidence of their presence before
the second century. The subject is, however, debateable and cannot be dealt with now.
What we are dealing with in our present excavations is Caerwent after it had ceased to
be (if it ever was) a military station and had become a country town.

It is traversed from east to west by the modern high roadf which follows the ancient
line almost exuctly, and two other roads ran at an equal distance north aud south of the
main road and parallel to it. Three roads can be traced running north aud south,
intersecting these, and if we are entitled to suppose that the town was laid out on a
regular plan, we may assume a fourth, further east, which would give twenty rectangular
iusulae. But excavation alone can bring certainty on this point : conjecture in such
matters is merely beating the air, and preconceived notions, especially of symmetry, are
apt to be rudely upset in dealing with Romano-British cities. Such was the sad

* The inscription is cut upon one face of a pedestal which very likely once bore a statue of the
man whom the community desired to honour.

t A full report upon it will shortly be published in Archaolcgia.

I See the plan of the town (Fig. 5) reproduced from Arehaologia, LVIII., 2, p. 406, Fig. 4 y
by kind permission of the Society of Antiquaries.

[ 102 ]

1904.]

MAN.

[No.

L— H-M -I \BLLED HYFOl

I a Royal Engineer corporal wlio drew some of our plans* and who at B
fontJ u d that our walls were straight ami our rooms rectangular. As a fact, a

right angle iB a real rarity in Cuerwnir. Before dealing with our own fl» avatious, 1
ma J te briefly that lei have been continually occurring and are mentioned

by various writers from Leland onward*. I Mild seem, been Inhabited

unin ml i* still ro some extent occupied bj the bviHiitgi end gardens oi tlis

modern village. But the only regular excavations of whirh

u>
Morgan In 1855, who

v in-

Bel of private

baths 1 — so typical thai

the plan has been re-
produeed is lIomtDseii-
Marqttardt'f Handbuck

*hr Kottnsvftt n Attvr

thmm vii. i/v-

vatleben der B&mer) 3 p.

ai an example of

Bitch a building — and by
Mr, Mitverton Drake, a
Bristol architect, in 1893 (/V Antiquarian Ctu^ vol. III.,

pp. 1 pl#iv). InBpired by the example of Sileheeter, the commltt I to

lie B systematic excnvatiou of the lite, 1 1 is not often that
an opportunity otters (and still sken) of explo

site of a Roman country town, and if we an- able to examine all those parts of it wbicb
are not occupied by buildings or which will not manifest unfruitful, we shall be

able to supply the only English parallel to the work at ;. And, BO far as we

have gone, the differences ate of sufficient tmportanOS n> add irnatlv to 6

the work. The plan^ of BOOe of
our booses are quite dissimilar.
I [oust - 2 and
boofre with rooms round ai;

anuot
-v. The wfal

wing bae t h to trvu built,

but ii does '"«»• seem that the

ial plan was abandoned.
corridor on the north Bids
apparent}) Bop and the

lened by about i

,\ po-
oose. Ho

- no signs of re< <>n at all. It has ■ large oblong p >2' X 42') in

the ceuirr though the boose itself is aim

The fact that there is but little inter-eomniuuicar reOO the room- exoejM

throogfa the peristyle is noteworthy, and this fact, coupled with their small size and

• Arch*ologia t XXXVI.. 2, p. 432, pt XXXVI.

t JhuL LVIl., i\ pp. $01 9fq* pL XL. j U'tlb, 1, pp. 119 #??., pi. VIII.

[ 103 1

No. 69.)

MAN.

[1904.

. size of the Lata ted to t^* doI impossible •■

that the place nay n inn. The pent rod all round Mn? afnbulal

if ien stone columns, parts of which hsr I ; they do

I tu have ha c»? with

Uppermost part, of t J » simple Kotnauo-Dortc mould i
of good It;

third example rare type of bouse plan hiring rooms round all fow sides

of a oourtyard ii bouse 7.* The numbering, it may be noted, b that ol the

cavation ami cannot be Slid ' • 'H if-n r . HoUSCti 1-6

thus dug our after 7-

• uld not be pursued till 1902. B(o waver, it would be riaky i<> assums
of the plan f I hare until we have gone a groat deal furtbej

wiiii Bpadevrork, Th mple is pot, however, a "pure** case of a boute of

the irtyard type with rooms round all four sides, though th condition.

Origii ds on the Booth Bide o\ iti oo only, many of the wall

h ive been th the later huildin

en suppressed <m- bo The wresl wall of this earlier house was arranged

with ti» rhe road which run beta* th slope el the mound of w)

we liiivc ipoken, its outst wall bordering upon it. 1 wide

and gravelled j if appears in many placet I ad later west walls of

the 1 BO, having I

ered up when the

bom construct

Thi

of the boilA

ally interesting, as we
Ikui' in the two princi-
|!il rooms (6 and 7f
(Fig. 8) been able to
study the degeneration
(rather tlmu the pro-

-Briti>h

bouse '!' ■ Three,

it' not four, separate coals

of painted plaster could

ieen upon the wal

and were duly traced in
full size and coloured,

while at; removal of the pavements of the upper layer II was found that in

room 7 an earlier pavement remained in an almost perfect of preservation, with

•newhat, uncommon geometrical design. Of those of the upper layer and later
period, th purely geometrical, < very largely of chequers and

triangles executed in black and white only, lint that of room 6 Ea of interest as
being of considerable intricacy of (though the execution is unskilful) aud as

having \ Bgurea — in the four corners the four seasons, of which Winter maj

rly be recognised ; In the four circles four Cupids of unj appearand

and in four rectangles, animals (two lions and two other beasts, of which one

be a hare), while the other (occurring in one ease alone and in the other with ibe ham)

has been variously named, hut i* in truth quite enigmatic.

NO. 7 : ii<<

* 1' LVIII. !, t pp. lit) »qq, % pL VIU., where a full report with Illustrations of the

mosaic pavementa and wal iven,

[ 104 ]

1904.]

MAN.

[No. 69.

A little to the east, in room SO of I MB dieooYeiJ was

Slide— 4 d* what for w;mr of • better nann- Ifi kllfl ■*•*

l r neriati m deity, probably not purely Soman. Ii \> >n mnd-

He anil nv nerk » ami ^

khL Th. eyeballs an ~' ntl * tne

irjii^rhr, liie no -mall, ti iudented, the hair is entirely

B, It If | hack, and tttt DOt mi.-:mt i<> be H I n ErOfD tb« 6 I BO

the attachment of the seek to the shoulder*, and it todepun-

dent head. I' I platform Hot

-;,,. Boor Jj u, which may be tbe foundation of A shrine, the

ston< tractor© of which has been time bona entfa

century. In front are Wool > r >e

apparently intended t<» BUpp ooden

rail i i

1 *a work again took us

forth the bouses, as will

be seen,t are of more normal type, and
did not present I h -a in re- Of

inter (f Tor tii i of hvpo-

te which we have called house 5,
j were probably a set of baths.

bui Ming is remarkable for the
solidity of it- construction, wWl lt $ walls

footing and 4 feet
v ; the pila> of the hjrpoei

it 10 inches high, which is rare, but

be paralleled in the bathe ai WVn
The stokehole tree at the north end, and
the hotter room* were natu
If we are to name the rooms we may
suggest the following : 2, hoi bail

mum ; j, tepidarinra ; 5% bol betb
attached re QaJidarimn ; 7. 10, epodyteria
(or 7, cold bath) mi,

The floor whieb mi p ports the pilte

stem of drains under it. The

solidity of the masonry is accounted for

i»e ease of getting limestone and

, and the comparative scarcity

of brick : -tone roof tiles predominate ;

often we find hypocausts entirely supported ij el .brick being need only u

the heat was more intense. This is Been well in a [erg en*1 in the north

diggings, where brick pi hi are only found near the Btokebole, ti

Early in the obtained leave from the pariah council to dig on the village

green. It occupies the point of h w of the high road and Hie road goiug south

from the north gate, and here we found a base of squared stones, the lower course* of
which are probably Roman work (perhaps the podium of a temple or shrine >, th
modified in later times, liuilt against this (not in its original position) we found the
inearthed base, of which the text has been already given.

L— UKAD OF A STOXE FIGURE.

* Sn Wig, 4, reproduced by kind permission of the Society of Antiquaries, f rem A
LVI1I., I.: : . 7.

f ArdUnkfiOt LV1IL, 2, pi. XXVI

[ 105 ]

Wo. 69.]

MAN.

[1904.

The work of 1903 was mainly concent rated on a field to the east of the -ate.

the property of Lord Tredegar, who, as president of the corn mil tee, has tak>
infer**! U the work from the first, and I materially forwarded it^ f An

elliptical enclosure, measuring about 120 by 150 feet, mm to have been an am
theatre ; the seats, of which no trace remain, must have been entirely of wood. It
appears to ha | very late erection, o* it La built over earlier structures and even,

it would seem, over a street, rod was jiossibly never completed. Its position within the
walls i* remarkable in a town of so small a size as Caerweut.

Tbfl church has ji lid to occupy the site of a temple, and tie supposition

reasonable A huge building of some kind certainly stood there, to judge from

ri'.. . -l'UN or GABBWBVT,

the architectural fragments which had been used in its const motion and were brought to
li^rht in a recent restoration.

Phs small objects found upon ihc site are of kite usual character. Tlis coins
include a board of about 7,000, altnost all minimi of the fourth and tilth centime* a.i>.,
which was found in a room in house 6. A great deal of the potter] QSUil on Komano-
Britieh sitsi lias been found, and A good deal of " Sauiian H ware among it. B
the bron/e fibufa with their eoloured enamel are fine specimens of this kind of work.
They are at present preserved in a museum OD the spot, but their ultimate declination is
uncertain ; they will in all probability, however, he housed at Newport (Mon.).

[ 106 ]

1904.] MAN. [Nos. 69-71.

It is hoped that the excavations may be continued until all the land within the
walls which is not occupied by modern buildings has been thoroughly explored.
Whether this will be possible depends chiefly on the measure of support received from
those who are interested in the work. THOMAS ASHBY, Jun.

Africa, South. Petrie.

Jtoads from Bulawayo. By Professor W. M. Flinders Petrie, D.C.L., ^#%
F.R.S. IU

By the kiudness of Mrs. Tufnell I have seen some beads belonging to Mrs. Chester
Master, which were found by a prospector " in an ancient working at Bulawayo, along
" with a round stoue used by the ancients to crush the gold." The beads of glass are
oval with flat ends, *30 in. long, *34 in. diameter. The interior is a white translucent
(so-called opal) glass core about half of the diameter, covered with a dark pink trans-
parent glass. This coat is certainly wound around the core, and not drawn out in one
mass with the core. The colour is known in late Roman beads (or Coptic) in Egypt,
but nowhere earlier so far as I have seen. At that time, however, beads were drawn
and not wound ; and when the modern Venetian style of winding beads from glass
threads was revived is not yet known. When the history of mediaeval glass beads is
ascertained these might be closely dated ; but it seems that they cannot be before the
fourth century a.d., aud may well be of the early Arab period, eighth and ninth century,
when gold flowed so largely into Egypt. With them was a small corroded base-gold
bead, hammered round with a gap at the side, °22 in. diameter, '13 high. It is much to
be wished that the glass beads often found with the gold in South Africa were preserved
and sent for examination, as they alone were imported, while the gold was local and has
no value for comparison with known forms. W. M. FLINDERS PETRIE.

REVIEWS.
America : Basketry. Mason.

Aboriginal American Basketry : Studies in a Textile Art without Machinery. ^*
By Otis Tufton Mason. From the Report of the United States National I I
Museum for 1902. Washington, 1904. Pp. 171-.548, with 248 plates. 24 x 15 cm.

It is not without reason that Otis T. Mason has invented a new word for a new
disease in his paper on Aboriginal American basketry in the annual report of the
Smithsoniau Institution for 1902, and few readers of the volume will escape without a
touch of "canastromania," i.e., an excessive desire for collecting baskets.

Much of the substance of the memoir under review and many of its illustrations are
already familiar from the earlier publications of the Smithsonian Institution, but the
whole has been amplified, added to, and enriched until it has become a valuable record
of the past and a guide iu the future for the growing class of workers who are interested
in this branch of technology.

Although basket is probably the oldest word in the English language, and the
introduction quotes references from Terence, Martial, the Arabian Nights, and the
Bible, basket-study is still in its infancy, iu that period of vague indefiniteness in which a
rigid classification, fortified by a vocabulary, is especially valuable. Classification is
the keynote of this paper. The whole subject of basketry is divided into nine sections,
dealing separately with materials, construction, ornamentation, symbolism, uses, &c.
The longest section is that devoted to ethnic varieties of basketry, an attempt to
associate certain general effects with definite peoples, showing how the characteristic

[ 107 ]

Nob. 71-72.] MAN. [1904.

technic and ornament bewrays the basket-maker's thumb audi the intimate relationship
between the tribe and the art. In the first section, treating of the general classification of
technic, basketry is divided primarily into two groups, hand-woven aud sewed or coiled
and these primary groups have five and ten subdivisions respectively, determined by the
methods of construction and the stitch employed. The names for the subdivisions are
unusually descriptive, and, in all but one of the fifteen, names derived from the place of
origin have been avoided.

The vocabulary will be useful, but it fails to supply the word for the essential
central feature of all basketry, a word general enough to describe any strip or strand or
group of strips or strands used in weaving a basket. In many examples the warp and
the weft are of equal size and pliability, and being worked in checkerwork or twilled
patterns diagonally across the basket neither series has a better claim than the other to
be called warp or to be called weft, while they may not fall within the technical
meanings of strand, strip, splint, fibre, &c. In such cases, which occur frequently in
describing the softer bags and wallets, the choice lies between the term, " weaving
element," which is clumsy, and the term, "weaver," used by Miss Mary White {How to
make Baskets), which is sometimes ambiguous.

The fifth section traces the symbolism of the basketry designs before idealism was
buried in commercialism, for Indian baskets were and still are made " for no other end
than to record a legend." These records are especially valuable since they have to be
collected from the reticent and suspicious basket-maker herself, and no academic
generalisation is possible.

The sixth section on the uses of basketry is necessarily long, and the alphabetical
list of uses at the end nearly fills two double-columned pages, beginning with " Armor M
and ending in " Zootechny," with many unexpected inclusions, such as hedges, houses,
leggings, love baskets, medicine, money, skirts, bizors, and wedding blankets.

The paper is enriched with 212 text illustrations, with valuable details of stitches,
followed by 248 plates, coloured and uncoloured, and full of interest and of beauty,
showing the baskets and their makers. The latter, as a rule, contribute more of interest
than of beauty, but an exceptiou is seen in PI. 171, which may be referred to on accouut
of its completeness. It is the reproduction of a photograph representing a woman of
the Hupa Reservation, N. California, weaving a basket, with the materials before her,
and finished and unfinished baskets at her side. She wears a hat made of basket-work,
and is wrapped in a deer skin, decorated with a basket-work fringe of straw, while
her baby, tucked into a basket frame, with the handle over its head, sits somewhat
discontentedly at her side. A. HINGSTON.

Stone Age. Rutot.

Coup d'ceil sur Vetat des Connaissances relatives aux Industries de la pierre. «jq
Par A. Rutot. (Extrait du Compte rendu du Congres d'Arch^ologie et d'Histoire, f L
Dinant, 1903.) Namur, 1904. 25 x 17 cm. Pp. 270, with 172 figures in the text.

The latest views of M. Rutot on the handiwork of eolithic and palaeolithic man, as
laid before the Archaeological and Historical Congress at Dinant last year, should meet
with a cordial welcome in this country. They are now published separately, and take
the form of a general criticism of present knowledge as to prehistoric remains in central
and north-western Europe. A large number of illustrations and diagrams from the
author's hand add considerable interest to a study that must necessarily deal with
technicalities, and the volume is divided under two main headings, neolithic times being
disregarded. The first part deals with primitive flint industry — both pre-qua ternary
and quaternary — and the second with what is more generally understood by the term

[ 108 ]

1904.] MAN. [Nob. 72-73.

" palaeolithic/' while some short chapters at the end, together with a tentative
classification, should not be overlooked.

Whatever view is taken of eoliths as implements, or of the geological period to
which the eolithic gravels are to be assigned, all must recognise the zeal and ability
which the learned curator of the Brussels Natural History Museum brings to his task.
The Thenay flints that the Abbe Bourgeois brought forward in 1867 as evidence of
tertiary man are still mysterious, and are associated with the Aceratherium in
M. Rutot's table of classification. Those of Puy-Courny, with percussion bulbs and
signs of re-chipping, are recognised by the author without hesitation as man's handiwork,
and assigned to the same horizon as the Dinotherium in the upper miocene. After a
considerable interval come the eoliths from the chalk plateau of Kent (middle pliocene),
which are shown to belong to drift deposited before the present river valleys were
formed.

Something is said with regard to the working and wear of these flints to account
for their very blunt edges, and attention drawn to the scarcity of flint at that period
necessitating the constant re-working of the same pieces. Justice is then done to
Mr. Lewis Abbott's discovery of implements in the Cromer forest bed, published in
Natural Science (1897), and this is bracketed with St. Prest, both sites being charac-
terised by the Elephas meridionalis, and belonging to the upper pliocene. The fauna
of the three palaeolithic periods is represented by the Elephas antiquus, the mammoth
and the reindeer, respectively ; but the middle period is now subdivided into two, the first
including the ordinary drift and Moustier types, the second certain stages marked by the
use of bone and ivory. M. Rutot suggests an ivory period in place of the Solutreen of
G. de Mortillet. As to the relative date of Solutre there has always been some doubt,
due in part to the neolithic appearance of flints from that site, but we are now assured
that its occupation coincided with the opening of the Madelaine period, and its remains .
can no longer be regarded as typical of an entire period.

It appears that throughout the Eolithic period no progress was made in the art of
flint working, the same rude types occurring till a fresh start is made at the Mesvinien
stage. On the other hand, scrapers from Puy-Courny are practically identical with
numberless neolithic specimens. Some lucid observations on patina, as affected by matrix
and exposure, form a fitting conclusion to a work that will do much to realise the author's*
ambition, as expressed in the introduction, to stimulate the study of primitive man.

R. A. S.

Psychology. Ward: Rivers.

The British Journal of Psychology, Edited by James Ward and W. H. R. «*
Rivers. Cambridge, 1904. Vol. I., Parts land 2. Pp. 190. Price, Part 1, 5*. : ftf
Part 2, 3*. 6V/.

Anthropologists, no less than psychologists, will welcome the appearance of an
English psychological periodical. Hitherto Mind and Brain have stood practically
alone as representatives of England, while their continental and American confreres
have multiplied exceedingly. No one will say that the new venture does not fill a gap,,
and in some respects The British Journal of Psychology promises to occupy a unique
place, in that one of its editors and two of the collaborators named on the title-page
have included savage and barbarous races in their studies and taken part in anthropo-
logical expeditions. Anthropology, therefore, may expect to profit, even more than
psychology perhaps, from the new periodical which, as far as regards the psychophysical
investigation of uncultured peoples, has practically a clear field before it.

[ W9 ]

No. 73.] MAN. (1904.

In the second part of the Journal Dr. Myers gives the results of an enquiry,
conducted by himself personally in Torres Strait, and since continued in other
part 8 of the "world by means of a questionnaire , into the taste-names of primitive
peoples. At the outset he justly points out that imperfections of vocabulary by no
means imply imperfections of perceptions relating to the more civilised nations. This
is sufficiently obvious, as anyone can convince himself who tries to name a selection of
coloured wools. The names are not, indeed, in English non-existent ; probably an
artist or anyone whose business is with colours, whether in manufactured goods or
pigments, would be able to name most, if not all, of such an assortment of wools and
describe them to a fellow -ex pert. I have 350 odd names of colours on a rough list,
which is probably far from exhaustive, even if we exclude names derived from the
objects with which the colour^ are associated, perhaps the commonest and certainly
the simplest method of extending the colour-vocabulary ; but, just as I cannot name
with certainty more than a small proportion of a wool scale otherwise thau by distinc-
tions of shade and tone, so I am uuable to apply with certainty more than a small
proportion of the colour-names on the list for want of experience. This does not, of
course, mean that a deficiency in the colour- vocabulary is never associated with, and in
part due to, a deficiency in sensitivity. It merely indicates that vocabularies apart from
experiments are unsatisfactory as evidence of such deficiency.

The analysis of the taste-vocabulanes collected by Dr. Myers gives the following
results : (1) " Good" and "sweet " are frequently syuonymous. (2) The same term is
applied to saltness, but the specific name for salt is usually derived from sea water.
(3) " Salt " and «• sour " tend to be confused, or " salt " and ** bitter."

The majority of printed vocabularies are merely lists of words, as to the meaning
of which in most cases there may be little misconception. But when we come to adjec-
tives, especially of taste, there are several possibilities, even if the data are based on
experiments. Savages are, it is true, as a rule iudifferent to smells, and we may perhaps
leave out of account the olfactory sense of the word. But even if we are certain tLat
the word is used of taste we may well be in some doubt whether it is a specific or merely
a general term. A child will often describe a taste as " nice," when it recognises it as
sweet. But to conclude from such cases that the term " sweet " is absent from the
child's vocabulary, and still more to argue from its use of terms to its sensations is
clearly unjustifiable.

This is a source of confusion which is absent when we deal with the colour-
sensation and names of savages. Whatever may be the case wheu it is a question of
clothing or ornament, the savage has hardly developed an aesthetic appreciation of the
beauty of colour per se. Tastes, on the other hand, although these may differ strangely
in the matter of the satisfaction to be derived from the consumption of rancid blubber
and other delicacies (largely a matter of education, as our appreciation of high game
shows), are commonly thought of as pleasant or unpleasant by the savage as by civilised
man. We can therefore never be sure that when the savage describes a taste as good
he intends to describe by that word what we call sweet.

We are accustomed to increase the sweetness of dishes and liquids at will, and have
consequently formed the habit of treating the sweetness of a preparation as a separable
element. It must not be overlooked that with savages the case is far different. If we
consider the Australians or the races of any country where the fruits of the earth do
not grow abundantly, it is clear that their idea of sweetness is closely connected with
some individual food, usually honey, just as our ideas of saltness were connected origi-
nally with the sea. If, therefore, a tribe little in contact with Europeans is tested with a
solutiou of sugar they are brought face to face with a new experience. The taste of
honey depends a good deal on the flower from which it is got, and is further modified by

[ no ]

1904.] MAN. [Nos. 73-74.

the wax. Are we entitled to assume that the savage would recognise the simple
sensation of sweetness as identical with the sweetness which for bim is always associated
with other gustatory sensations ?

These points are, of course, not overlooked by Dr. Myers, whose main purpose was
to point out certain correspondences of the features of taste and colour nomenclature.
As regards the identity of names for u good " and " sweet," it may be interesting to note
that of the 200 odd vocabularies in Curr's Australian Race about 20 per cent, have the
same word for both ; in a few cases there seems to be some confusion, and in one or two
oases two words are given for sweet without any indication of a difference of use. In
four cases (Vocabs. 11, 94, 150, and 177*) the word for sweet is derived from the word
for honey or identical with it. In one case (Vocab. 147) there is stated to be no word
for sweet. Salt and bitter are expressed by the same word once (Vocab. 6), and hachish
and bitter once (Vol. II., 93). These latter terms are, however, only given in a few
cases.

It is not difficult to see why the word for salt is usually derived from the word for
sea, and is in some cases a foreign word. Dr. Frazer has given in his Pausanias a list of
peoples who do not kuow and do not use salt, and a similar list is given by an Austrian
authority. Probably the use of salt is frequently derived from other nations ; it must
have long remained unknown to inland peoples, and would naturally be known by a
foreign word in many cases, or in the case of people acquainted with the sea by a word
derived from the source of the commodity. As Dr. Myers justly remarks at the outset,
the cause of the peculiarities in vocabulary may turn out to be psychological rather
than physiological. We know that savage vocabularies are often singularly lacking in
general terms. There may, for example, be words for all the species of trees known to
them and no word for tree as a generalised idea. Conversely a want of differentiation
frequently appears ; some Australian tribes have no separate words for " to eat " and
" to drink." We can therefore hardly be surprised if they fail to develop a vocabulary
of terms corresponding to the sensations of sight and taste.

The other articles are rather of psychological than specifically anthropological
interest, but more than one of them will appeal to the general reader. Particularly
interesting is the case of a man whose first visual sensations were subsequent to an
operation for cataract performed in his 30th year. N. W. T.

Hausa. Brooks: Nott.

Bdtu na Abubuan Hausa : with Translation, Vocabulary, and Notes. By W. H. *m m
Brooks, B,A.,and Lewis H. Nott. London : Frowde, 1903. Pp. 56. 19 x 12 cm. |T
Price 3*. 6d.

This little book, Bdtu na Abubuan Hausa, is worthy of its object as indicated in
the introduction. What we certainly want today is a collection of original Hausa texts
brought within reach of the student, and as a specimen of what I mean this little book
can be taken as an excellent example.

As regards the method of dealing with the pronunciation I cannot, however, but
think that that adopted here, and very often elsewhere, is not the simplest obtainable.
This multiplication of dots, signs, and accents must inevitably tend to confuse the
student, especially one who has no knowledge of any other language but English. Why
not, for instance, spell che thus instead of le ? It is far simpler and grasped at once.
Take the word that the Hausa has for farm given in the book as gqra. I should
certainly myself spell this gwora.

The translations are good and the vocabulary excellent. E. F. MARTIN.

* Op. cit., III., p. 28*.
[ 111 ]

Nob. 75-76.] MAN. [1904.

Baloch. Race. Dames.

The Baloch Race : A Historical and Ethnological Sketch. By M. Longworth Tft
Dames. Asiatic Society Monographs, Vol. IV. London : Royal Asiatic Society, ■ **
1904. Pp. 90. 23 X 15 cm. Price 5*.

This account of the Baloch race is one of an interesting series of monographs on
scientific questions connected with the East, now in course of publication under the
auspices of the Royal Asiatic Society. Mr. Dames, in addition to the experience
gained in a long service on the western frontier of India, is deeply read in the
special literature of his subject, and he has brought together a large mass of valuable
information about a people which presents many features of interest, and is little known
to ethnologists.

As to the derivation of the name, Mr. Dames dismisses the suggestion of Von
Bohlen, subsequently adopted by Max Mtiller, that it represents the Sanscrit mlechha,
the equivalent of the Greek fidpfiapoc. He is inclined to believe that the word is
Persian, meaning " a cockscomb " or " crest," and may have been an uncomplimentary
nickname applied to the tribe.

Many suggestions have been made regarding the origin of the race. The fact that
they have long, aquiline noses has led some writers to connect them with the Arabs,
but Mr. Dames points out that this is not really the Arab type. He believes them to
be an Iranian race, and classes them with the Tajiks and other original races of the
Iranian table-land. They first appear in history to the north of Persia, in the neigh-
bourhood of the Caspian, in the time of the later Sassanians. Later on, they appear in
Kerman, some time after the Mubammadan conquest, and they pushed on to Sistan
about the tenth century. Their final move into the dus valley took place in the
period of disturbance which followed Tiraur's invasiou, 1 the subsequent inroads of
Babar and the early Mughals.

Their language is an Iraniau idiom, closely related to modern Persian, and showing
many points of resemblance to Zend. But the vocabulary is largely borrowed from that
of the neighbouring races — Arabic, Sindhi, Jatki, and Brahoi.

Mr. Dames gives a full description of the tribal organisation of this people. By
preference they adopt a nomadic life ; their villages are merely temporary halting places.
But under our rule the population tends to become more and more fixed as cultivation
extends. Like many other nomad races, the arts of carpet-making and embroidery
flourish among them. But the title of Rahzan or highwayman is held in the highest
estimation. W. CROOKE.

PROCEEDINGS OF SOCIETIES.
London. Anthropological Institute.

Ordinary Meeting, Tuesday, June 14th, 1904. Mr. E. W. Brabrook, C.B., ^q
F.S.A., Vice-President, in the chair. f D

The election of the following as Ordinary Fellows of the Institute was
announced : — Miss Balfour, Messrs. W. H. Baxter, E. Crawley, A. T. C. Cree, and
R. N. Hall.

Mr. J. Gray, treasurer, exhibited, by kind permission of Mr. Oldfield Thomas,
F.R.S., a collection of skulls from the Philippine Islands collected and presented to the
British Museum by Mr. A. H. Savage Landor.

Mr. J. Beddoe, M.D., LL.D., F.R.S., ex-president, read a paper on "A Method of
Estimating Skull Capacity." The paper was discussed by Mr. Gray, Mr. Atkinson,
Dr. Gladstone, and the Chairman.

Printed by Rtrb ksj> 8pottiswoode, His Majesty's Printer?, East Harding Street, E.C.

Pt^T

TWICt 9MA

(7<» »c

JfcTTE OF TM€ GOO HEASHEFI.

1904.] MAN. [No. 77.

ORIGINAL ARTICLES.
Egypt: Excavations. With Plate H. Petrie.

Excavations at Ehnasya. By W. M. Flinders Petrie, D.C.L., F.R.S. 7-*

The site of the Arabic town, Ehnasya or Ahnas, is the Roman Herakleopolis f I
Magna, the Egyptian Henensuten, a place well-known from the I dynasty onward, and
even of mythological importance. It is now a great mass of mounds, of Roman and Arab
age, about seventy miles south of Cairo, and ten miles from the Nile ; the strip of four
miles of cultivation between it and the desert is probably due to the rise of Nile soil
covering low desert between, so that the town may have been on the edge of the desert
originally.

It was the home of the IX and X dynasties, of whom hardly anything is
known, and there have been hopes that some trace of that period might be found
there. Twelve years ago Dr. Naville found the site of a temple ; he uncovered the
upper stones of the central hall, and the colonnade before that, and removed six columns
of red granite, but no plan was made, or any systematic historical research. This year —
in default of better ground — I went to work the history of the site, and we found in
course of work the two finest objects that have come to light in Egypt for some time
past, the gold statuette here illustrated (Plate H), and a colossal group of figures in grauite.
We uncovered not only the central hall to its lowest foundations, but also as large a space
of the chambers behiud it, and a still larger space of a great court with colossi in front
of it. We have thus the history of another great Egyptian temple worked out as
far as possible.

The oldest temple on this ground was probably of the XII dynasty. But below
this were ruins of older houses cut down and levelled for the building of the temple.
And against the foundations of these houses were burials, which must be older than the
temple. These comprised scarabs of Antef V (Nub-kbeper-ra), a " king of the Aamu
(Syrians)," and other types which have been supposed of recent years to be much later,
and to belong to the XVI and XVII dynasty. Here, however, we have a clear
succession of periods : —

I. The burials.
II. A great temple.
III. A great temple of Tahutmes III, XVIII dynasty.

As II cannot on any reasonable supposition be of the XVIII dynasty, aud ruined
before Tahutmes III, we must conclude that II was the temple of the XII dynasty,
of which much sculpture remaiued on the site. Hence the period I must be of the
XI dynasty, agreeiug with the date first credited for Antef V. This is one of the
most important points yet in doubt in Egyptian history, and the evidence here is very
strong, and must hold the field unless auything more decisive may come to light.

The first temple was smaller than that of the XVIII dynasty and later times,
according with the results at Abydos, where the early temples were of much less area
than the later. It seems to have consisted of a small sanctuary, perhaps, 14 feet square
inside, with chambers for treasuries on each side of it, and a great open court before it.
In the foundations of this temple lay a block with the figure of a kiug brought from
some earlier site, probably of the VI dynasty by the style. Many pieces of the
sculptures of the XII dynasty were found in the ruins, showing that Senusert
(Usertesen) II and III aud Amenemhat III all built here (about 2600 B.C.). The
great architrave of the temple entrance can be restored from the size of the piece of
jamb remaiuiug ; it must have been just the length of the later architrave of the
Rainesside temple, and the same as a great architrave reworked, now in the ruins of
a Coptic church. Probably the same beam of stone has served every builder of temple
or church for over 3,000 years. Two fine statues of quartzite saudstone were found in
the ruins, also of the XII dynasty, but reworked by Ramessu II.

[ 113 ]

No. 77.] MAN. [1904.

After this early temple was destroyed a much larger one was built by Tahutmes III
(1500 B.C.) of the XVIII dynasty, as is shown by a plan stretching much further back.
The old sanctuary gave way to a much larger hypostyle hall of twenty-four columns,
with a lesser hall of four columns behind it, and several treasuries by the sanctuary. At
this period the lines of the building faces were all traced out by clear grooves upon
the foundation blocks. It is dated by a scarab of the king, and other things of his
age, found between the stones.

This temple was more or less removed, and rebuilt by Ramessu II (1300 B.C.), at
least as regards the facade. There still remains a line of large blocks of brown quartz ite
sandstone bearing an inscription of Ramessu II, which formed the lower course of the
whole front of the temple. This king also carved new architraves out of blocks of
granite of the XII dyuasty, and placed his figures and names upon the beautiful
monolith columns of granite, also belouging to the first temple. In the fore-court he
placed, up each side of the court, a row of colossi of limestone, 25 feet high, and two
colossal groups of figures of himself between Ptah and Hershefi, the local god. One of
these triads was seated, it is now broken ; the other group was standing, 11 feet high,
8 feet wide, weighing about 20 tons. This is the finest such group known, and it is to
be placed iu the Cairo museum.

The building level was again raised for a later temple, and the plan slightly altered.
This may have been in the XXII dyuasty (900 B.C.), as there was certainly a secure
shrine here iu the XXIII dynasty when the gold statuette was dedicated. This
figure is shown iu Plate H. It is of the finest work in the anatomy of the muscular
treatment and proportions, and is probably the largest gold figure, aud perhaps the
most artistic, that has been found in Egypt. The excellence of it is more surprising at
so late a date as 700 b.c. ; and it shows that the artist was by uo means extinct in
even a low period of general taste and ability. On the base is an inscription which the
engraver has bungled, in copying it, probably, from some statue. It records the name
and titles of the king under whom it was dedicated, Nefer-ka-ra Pef-du-bast-mer-bast.
He was a vassal king of Piaukhy the Ethiopian, and has hitherto ouly been known in
an inscription of his suzerain, so that an original monument is very welcome, especially
as it gives his throne name.

At a later date the floor of the temple was agaiu raised to a higher level, covering
nearly all the inscriptiou of the lower course. Rather than lift the great blocks of
granite which formed the basements of the colonnade, the builders inserted drums of
quartzite sandstone beneath the columns, so as to raise them to the new level. This
strange device has not been seen elsewhere. In this later temple stood a monolith box-
shrine of red granite carved by Nekht-hor-heb. The latest activity here seems to have
been some rebuilding by Antoninus, of which several blocks were found reused in a later
Roman house.

From the section of the earth over the temple it could be seen that after it had been
removed for stone, several feet of earth had accumulated over the foundations, and then
later digging had been made through this to extract the lower stones. This later
digging was in the fourth century a.d. by the pottery in the hole ; so the first ruin of
the temple was probably as early as the third century. Yet paganism flourished in Isis
and Horus worship for two centuries louger, as we see by the figures in the houses.
Thus it seems the first effect of Christianity was to place animal worship in disfavour,
and thereby to iucrease the Isis and Horus worship ; and the latter was never overcome,
but became incorporated iu Christianity as the Madonna aud Child. This view of the
different status of parts of the earlier religion has not appeared so evident before.

The gain in method this year has been in following the history of building by tracing
the several sand-beds between the stone3. No builder ever put some inches of sand
between his courses of masonry. Hence when layers of sand are found between stones

[ "4 ]

1904.] MAN. [Nob. 77-78.

it proves that a complete refoundation was made ; the stones below the sand-bed having
been left sunk in the ground and ignored, while a layer of sand was laid over them for
founding a new temple. Thus the view, which we exposed in the digging, of many
courses of stones separated by three or four beds of sand can be read off as recording the
founding of so many separate temples.

Though no whole dynasty of kings has been brought to light, as in our work at
Abydos, yet the fresh and strong evidence about the early date of some rulers and styles,
and the recovery of two of the finest monuments known, and the plans of the series of
temples on a great site, make this year another landmark in the clearing of Egyptian
history.

Beside the temple site we worked also in the town, entirely on burnt houses of
Roman age. Thus we have been able to date a long series of terra-cotta figures, which
are of much finer work than was expected in the third and fourth centuries a.d. And a
tolerably complete corpus of Romano-Egyptian lamps was made, and the degradation of
types traced throughout more than 1,000 varieties. This may, perhaps, be more fully
described here in future. W. M. FLINDERS PETRIE.

Easter Island. Dalton.

Easter Island: Script. By 0. M. Dalton, M.A., F.S.A. ^q

The short article on an inscribed tablet published in Man for the present year f
(1904. 1), though it contained a certain number of references, made no pretence of providing
a bibliography for the script of Easter Island. Mr. N. W. Thomas has suggested that it
might be worth while to add a supplementary series of references, and this I am now
enabled to do, thanks to his co-operation. The following list, arranged chronologically,
has been selected from a larger one, a number of references having been omitted as
containing information at second or third hand, or mere allusions to the script without
scientific value. The literature relating to Rapa Nui and its antiquities is, of course,
very extensive, but many writers ignore the tablets altogether or just note their existence,
so that the books and papers with which a student of the " hieroglyphs " has to deal are
not so numerous as might have been expected. I must express my regret for the
omission of all mention in the previous article of the two tablets at Vienna described in
Dr. Max Haberlandt's communication in the Vienna Mittheilungen noted below. The
papers in which the script is treated at any length, or which contain suggestive matter,
are marked in the list with an asterisk. It is not to be hoped that this is an exhaustive
bibliography, but it may prove of some little use to students of the ethnography of the
Pacific : —

1866. Globus (published at Brunswick), Vol. XIII., p. 313. (Short account of
Eyraud's nine months' stay in the island ; contains the statement that there were tablets
in almost every house.)

1870. Ibid., Vol. XVII., p. 248. (Palmer's account of visit of H.M.S. Topaze.)

1870. Zeitschri/t der Gese Use haft fiir Erdkunde, Berlin, p. 469. (Letter of
Dr. Philippi to Professor Bastian mentioning the tablets, and the report of Captain
Gana, commander of the CHiggins, the Chilian vessel which visited the island in 1870.)

1871.* Ibid., pp. 548-551. (Meinicke, Die Holztafeln von Rapa nui. The writer
protests against any theory of American influence, and rejects the view that the
script was due to a now extinct race. He believes the inscriptions to represent
genealogies.)

1872.* Ibid., Vol. VII., pp. 78-81. (Miklucho Maclay, Ober die Rohaurogo,
oder die Holztafeln von Rapanui. Draws attention to the similarity of characters on the
tablets to designs carved on stone statues, &c. The article is followed by remarks by
Professor Bastian (pp. 81-9), who suggests that the subjects of the inscriptions are not
merely genealogies, and may be ceremonial recitations for use at particular feasts.)

[ US 3

No. 78.] MAN. [1904.

1872. Revue Maritime, Vol. 35, pp. 105 ff., Vile de Pdques. (Short official report
by 'Admiral de Lapelin to the Minister of Marine, mentioning visit of the Flore of the
French Pacific squadron to Easter Island in 1872. This is followed by a translation of
the report of Captain Gana of the Chilian vessel O'Higgins. The translator's notes on
p. 121 relate to the tablets and give facts in support of their comparatively recent origin.)

1873. Iswestia (proceedings of the Russian Geographical Society, Vol. VIII.,.
p. 42). (Article by Miklucho Maclay.)

1873. Compte-rendu de VAcademie des Inscriptions et Belles-lettres, pp. 151-155.
(A. de LongpeYier discusses casts of inscriptions in the collection of the Bishop of Axieri.)

1876. Zeitschrift fur Ethnologie, Vol. VIII., p. 37 ff. (Philippi, Vber die Hiero-
glyphen der Osterinsel, #c. : mentions the receipt at the Santiago Museum of a third
example of the script, in addition to the original two tablets, casts of which had beer*
sent to Europe.)

1878. Le Tour du Monde. (Article by Pinart, who reproduces one of the Santiago-
casts ; the same writer in Bulletin de la Societe de Geographic, Vol. XVI. (1878),
p. 203, notices figures carved in relief upon stone buildings.)

1881. A. B. Meyer, Die Bilderschriften des Ostindischen Archipels und der
Sudsee (publication of the Royal Ethnographical Museum at Dresden, printed at
Leipzig), p. 7, plate vi. (The inscription of a tablet is reproduced, and the plates giving
examples of picture-writing from Pelew, Celebes, &c, are interesting for purposes of
contrast and comparison.)

1881. Globus, Vol. XL., p. 375. (Notice by Andree of the prccediug work by
Meyer.)

1883. A. Bastian, Zur Naturwissenschaftlichen Behandlungsiceise der Psychologies
Berlin, pp. 212 ff., with plate reproducing the example in the Museum fur Volkerkunde,
Berlin.

1883.* Ymer (Stockholm), Vol. III., pp. 182 ff. (H. Stolpe, part of his article on
Pask-bn, or Easter Island. This interesting paper is unfortunately written in Swedish,
and is therefore accessible to a comparatively small number of students. It may be
mentioned that the same author has treated the tattooing of the Easter Islanders in the
Abhandlungen of the Dresden Zoological and Anthropological Museum, Festschrift,
1899, No. 6.)

1886.* Mittheilungen der Anthropologischen Gesellschaft in Wien, pp. 97ff.,
plate x. (M. Haberlandt, ber Schrifttafcln von der Osterinscl. Discusses the
relation of the tablets to genealogy. They are probably not of high antiquity, and are
more important from the point of view of psychology than history.)

1889. The American Naturalist, Vol. XXIIL, p. 882. (\V. Hough mentions the
tablets iu an article on the visit of the Mohican.)

1893. Bulletin de Geographic historique et descriptive (Cornite des travaux,
historiques et scientifiques, Aunee 1892), Paris, 1893, pp. 240-270. (Bishop Jausseu's
posthumous memoii*, Vile de Paques, edited by the R.-P. Ildefonse Alazard, and
containing the vocabularies. See Man, 1904, p. 2.)

1895.* Le Musion, Bevue Internationale, published at Louvaiu, Vol. XIV.,
p. 415 ft*., and Vol. XV., pp. 68-73. (C. de Harlez, reproduction of inscription from a
tablet with the translation given by Metoro to Bishop Jaussen. De Harlez declares it to
be une suite damages independantes Fttne de Vautre, and not a continuous narrative at
all. Cf. Max, 1904, p. 4.)

1899. Comptcs-rendus de la Societi de Geographic, Paris, pp. 169-176. (Captain H.
Vere Barclay's, R.N., account of visit of II.M.S. Topaze. On p. 175 Captaiu Barclay says
that the characters on the tablets are not the same as those on the statues, &c. He believes
in a connection with S. America and suspects Maya influence.) O. M. DALTON.

[ H6 1

1904J

MAN.

[Nob. 79-80,

Polynesia.

A 8tone Rice-sheiler from Nu

Parkinson.

By R. Parkinson.

KXTEBIOE VIEW.

INTERIOR VIEW.

FIG. 1.

It happens very often that ethnographical specimens are found in places that I U
are far away from their original homes. Occasionally their origin can be traced and the
way they have travelled ; in many cases it is impossible to place them or to make oat
their original use.

A few months ago I visited the small island of Nusa on the north-west end of the
island of New Ireland (Neu Mecklinburg). Until lately it had a dense population, but
when a German firm bought the island most of the inhabitants left and settled in
different villages on the large island. The gentleman in charge of the island has lately
cleared away the undergrowth and forest with the intention of planting cocoanuts.
Walking through the clearing, I found a
piece of stone showing signs of being
worked, and searching carefully I found
some more pieces which fitted into each
other and showed the original form of the
interesting find. The remnants undoubtedly
formed a hemi-spherical bowl of ll£ inches
diameter and 7 inches height ; below has
been a conical continuation, now broken off,
apparently to fasten the bowl in the ground
or in a piece of wood. The upper hollow is 2\ inches deep in the centre. The outer
sides as well as the inner hollow have been carefully smoothed down, and the outer edge
shows signs of a shallow groove, undoubtedly ornamented. None of the inhabitants
were able to give any information and unanimously declared that the specimen did not
belong to Nusa, or to New Ireland or New Hanover. There can be no doubt that it
was brought to the islands many years ago as it shows signs of great age. I am
inclined to believe that this implement is a rice-sheller. Similar shellers of stone are at
present in use in Indonesia, although not so shallow. In this case it would prove that
emigrations from the west towards the east have taken place, and that the emigrants
have taken their original household things with them.

This find is still more interesting in connection with another made some years ago
opposite the island of Nusa, when the site of the present Kavieng Station was cleared.
The proprietor when clearing the premises found a round stone ball about
4 inches in diameter ; a handle of about oue inch in diameter had been broken
off. It is not unlikely that the two finds originally belonged together and
that one part was taken to Nusa, the other to Kavieng.

The illustrations show the bowl (Fig. 1) as well as the stone ball (Fig. 2)
which I consider to have been a pestle of some sort.
Can any reader of Man give me any information about the original home of these
two interesting implements ? R. PARKINSON.

fig. 2.

Africa. Torday.

8ongs of the Baiuba of Lake Moero. By Emile Torday. Commu- aa
nicated by T. A. Joyce. Q|J

It becomes ever more difficult to collect the songs of the different tribes ; soldiers,
who are never garrisoned in their own country, bring their songs and teach them to the
natives. The most striking example of this is the song " Lupembe," which, certainly
originating in the Stanley Falls region where was residing Major Lothaire (in whose
honour it has been composed), is sung through all the Congo Free State territory.
Another, and by t far the most unfavourable, circumstance, is that a European has
scarcely any opportunity of hearing natives sing, except when travelling, so that from

[ 117 ]

Wo. 80.]

MAN.

0904.

all their songs he can collect only marches, if he takes that trouble, and he very seldom
does.

These songs are invariably composed of a recitative followed by a chorus, which,
though nearly always the same, is slightly modified and adapted to the recitative. The
improvisation is generally made by the man who possesses the strongest voice, by no
means the best ; but I have known certain men famous for their wit, who, whenever they
were in a " safari " (caravan), had the right to lead the other singers.

The subject of these songs is very often the European who travels with the caravan,
and all honours are bestowed on him by the negro bard. Though he be (he most peace-
loving of mortals he will be
mentioned as a famous warrior
who has killed hundreds of
enemies ; though he be as thin
as a lath, his embonpoint will
be highly praised. Whoever he
be, he must, in the song, slay
people, lions, elephants, eat for
two driuk for three, have scores
of wives ; in fact, do and have
anything that makes him appear
wealthy and powerful in the eyes of natives. The improvisatore must not forget to mention
the numerous countries the great man has traversed, and will with the greatest naivete make
terrible geographical confusions.
It is surprising how well the
barmonisation of the choruses is
done, and if a man sings out
of tune he may be sure of being
forcibly corrected by his neigh-
bour, provided the said neighbour
is stronger than he.

They generally sing in thirds, but sometimes fifths complete the accord. On one

song no. 1.

mtegicLtv

S.C.

0M«

" ^m^m^^L

SONG NO. 2.

single occasion I heard a more complicated form

^fftgtgUo

SJU

**+>

SONG NO. 3.

was sung with great correctness by about twenty men (No. 1).

of the chorus, sung by Balu-
bas, who came from the Uppei
Luapula, near Johnston Falls.
I append some bars (all
I remember) of this song, which
I consider very greatly in ad-
vance of any negro song I ever
heard at Moero. I must at
the same time mention that it

One might suppose that the measure of these marches would always be - or -

as in the following song, No. 2 ;
but this is not consistent with
the facts, for the example of

No. 3 proves not only that ->

is equally used, but that even

in the same song the tempo

may change. This song is among the most popular, and any European having

travelled on the Moero cannot fail to remember it. Every bar is marked by a

sforzando.

[ 118 ]

SONG NO. 4.

1904.] MAN. [Nob. 80-81.

Even triolas are used in the song No. 4, which is very popular among women, who
sing it when grinding corn for flour, or groundnuts for oil.

You find hardly any save tenor voices among the men, and the compass of these
is very small. Baritones are scarce, and I never came across a real basso. The voice
generally breaks at nine or ten years, and is, I think, seriously affected by the frequent
use of the head -voice.

I never knew a woman to have a really good singing voice ; they have a child-like
soprano, and use only the throat- and head-voice, never the chest-voice. This is
probably due to the belief that it is more distinguS for a lady to speak in a falsetto
voice. It should be pointed out that there is a well-marked distinction between ladies
(bibi) and women (malamuke), and that all women crave to rank with the former.

But the days of the native songs are, I fear, limited ; civilisation will soon sweep
them away. I remember with horror my cook, who had grown up among missionaries,
singing all the day Gounod's " Ave Maria," and Haydn's " Tantum ergo," and I am
sure that the time is not far distant when the widely-spread military bands contributing
European comic songs will drive away the dear old native tunes. E. TORDAY.

Greece : Animal Folklore, Thomas.

Animal Folklore from Greece, Collected from various sources and Q4

communicated by N. W. Thomas. I

The following sets of answers amongst others have been sent in answer to the
questionnaire I issued broadcast some years ago and republished in Journ. Anthr.
Inst.y XXX., 114, in an enlarged form. By the kindness of the British School at
Athens the questions were translated into modern Greek and issued to people likely to
be able to send replies. I take this opportunity of thanking the authorities of the
British School and my correspondents for their aid. My hearty thanks are also due to
Mr. J. C. Lawson who kindly translated the notes sent by the last-named.

1. It is believed when anyone is going to his work or on a journey and meets on
the way a snake, his work and his plans in general will succeed, but when he meets a
hare the opposite will be the case, and many people prefer to return home or to put off
their work.

2. It is believed that a snake living in a house is a cause of prosperity. Two
curious points are : — First, that this snake passes once a. year over those who are
sleeping in the house, and it should be noted that in the villages of Epirus the inhabi-
tants do not sleep on beds, but in a row upon a rush mat. The second point is that if
this snake sleeps under the bed of a small child the latter will prove very prosperous.

3. It is believed that death is portended (1) by the owl ; that is to say, if it
hoots upon the roof of a house, especially at night, it is thought that someone in the
house will die. Hence the common curse used by women, " May evil owls chatter."
(2) l*he horned owl. (3) The dog, when it howls, especially if it is looking east.
(4) The hen, when it crows like a cock and begins clucking at night. With reference
to all these four, they say in such cases, " May he eat his head," and they commonly
kill them. (5) Crows ; when, for example, one or more of them pass over a village or
town it is thought that a plague will visit that place.

4. It is thought that when wild geese alight upon sown land there will be large
crops, &c.

6. It is thought that when anyone finds a tortoise's eggs he must not bring them
home, and the same is the case with partridges in some places. Pigeons that are kept
in the house are a cause of good fortune, but some think of bad.

[ "S ]

No. 81.] MAN, [1904.

7. Spotted or piebald aoimals are thought ill- omened ; white ones are lucky ; this
applies chiefly to horses. When they have two star-like marks on their foreheads they
are productive of evil ; those who are skilled in horses judge their qualities by their hair.

8. Swallows are considered sacred, and are not killed or eaten, and their young ones
are not takeu from the nests. The same is the case with the nightingale and the stork.
It is thought unlucky for anyoue while fasting to hear the cuckoo for the 6rst time in
the spring, i.e., he must have food in order " that the cuckoo may not lead him astray,"
as they say. With regard to the swallow they say as follows : — " Whoever is the first
" to see swallows on their arrival in the spring will wear new clothes at Easter" ; and
the swallow when it comes to warm climates in the autumn sings as follows : — a I have
" left shoot, and grape, and cross, and corn-rick."

9. Animals not used for food are numerous : the swallow, the nightingale, the
stork, cuckoo, raven, common and homed owls, jackdaw, the little horned owl, the
eagle, vulture, tortoise, horse, donkey, mule, dog, snake, wolf, jackal, fox, hedgehog,
and some others.

10. Sportsmen take the first auimal which they kill, throw it in the air, and watch
how it falls : if it falls on its back with its legs in the air, plenty of game may be
expected : if the other way up, the opposite.

11. Whenever a wolf or other harmful beast is killed or caught iu a net, its skin
is filled with chuff in such a way as to resemble the live animal, and is taken round the
villages to collect money. Also during carnival they take round the well-known camel.

12. It is thought that the flesh of the jay and of the hedgehog taken as food serves
to heal rheumatism ; the gall of the night-jar and of fish is good for lunacy. It is
thought that if anyoue touches or holds in his hands a salamander, he is able to heal
by his touch children up to two or three years of age. With regard to the bat, it is
believed that its bones, if they are put upon the altar and a priest recites his office over
them for forty days, obtain magic power, by means of which the possessor of them can
draw to himself by a mere touch any girl whom he will. With regard to the eagle, it is
thought that when anyone boils its eggs at the time of incubation and puts them back
again iu the nest, the eagle goes to the River Jordan, from which it takes a small
pebble and carries it to its nest, in order that by means of it the incubation may
succeed. This small pebble is taken by the man who boiled the eggs, aud serves for
healing many diseases, such as the evil eye, and it is commonly called the stone of
loosing. Frequently this pebble is gilded. If anyone who is suffering from tumour
eats a flayed dog, it is thought that he will be healed. Anyone who has been stung by
a scorpion they bury in a manure heap up to the throat, and nine womeu, all named
Mary, weep around him ; in this way it is thought that the man who has been stuug is
relieved of the worst pain.

13. It is thought that if anyone puts upon the part of the body which is sufferiug,
and especially in a case of a boil, a dumb cockerel, cut into two parts, a cure results.
A cat (or weasel ?) less than six months old serves to heal a disease which is called
carbuncle ; also the toad, the frog, the puppy, and the liver of the tortoise.

14. Confectioners make models of animals, especially fish and cocks. Goldsmiths
make models of donkeys in token that Christ sat upon the foal of an ass, also of a hand of
the Virgin Mary aud other things, especially of any parts of the body which are suffering,
to the order of the hick persons, who dedicate them before the ikons of the Saints with a
view to recovering. These (the patients) are commonly called " silvered."

16. It is believed by the common people that witches strip themselves naked, take
some implemeut from the hearth (a kind of rake), and riding upon it go to collect evil
spirits

lo. It is believed that the dead can assume the shape of dog, weasel (or cat ?),
pig aud other things. This is commonly called vrykolakismos.

[ 120 ]

1904.] MAN. [No. 81.

17. Dogs and birds are believed to understand human speech.

19. Birds are said to bring the babies.

20. It is believed that the owl was sent by her mother-in-law, with whom she had
a quarrel, to the river, in order to wash black wool and turn it into white. The owl went
and could not effect the change, so she prayed to God to change her into a bird, and this
came to pass. It is believed that once there were two brothers, of whom one was
looking after the sheep, the other having come to see the sheep and his brother, killed
him, owing to some unimportant dispute about a dung-heap. After this be repented and
prayed to God to change him into a bird in order that he might fly about and mourn for
his brother, and God, having heard his request, changed him into an eagle-owl. The
same story is told also about the bear (femiuine) with only this difference, that her
mother-in-law sent her to fetch water in a fine sieve.

22. It is thought that to keep skulls of animals in a field, especially in a garden,
protects the crops from the evil eye.

23. The name of the bee is used for hotel signs.

24. There are games to which they give the names of the wolf, the sheep, and the
pig. In Calarrhytae and in other places it is the custom for the shepherds to take
observations on the loth August from the tail of a dog concerning the state of weather
in the ensuing year. For example, if the dog sits with his tail turned towards the
north or west wind, by such a position is foreshown the state of the weather corre-
sponding with the strength of the wind in each direction (?) (district ?). Likewise when
the cat with its face towards the east, washes it with its forefeet, an improvement in
the weather will come, but if it looks westward it will rain. Likewise, when cocks
crow before the usual hour, it means a change of weather.

All these superstitions are held in Epirus, and especially, as I know most certainly,
in the free Greek portion. Nicholas K. Papacostas.

II.

1. The ox, the sheep, and the weasel (or cat) are considered productive of good
fortune to anyone who meets them, but the reverse is the case with the hare, the crab,
the wolf and the snake.

2. Sheep, oxen, dogs, fowls and weasels (or cats) are considered productive of
good fortune for the house in which they live. The opposite is the case with goats,
rabbits and pigeons.

3. A dog which howls, a hen that crows like a cock, and a crow forbode the
death of someone in the house in which they live.

4. Crested larks are considered to portend a rich harvest.

5. The bending of the crops before the wind is put down to " hares passing through
the field."

6. By means of keeping oxen, sheep, poultry and geese at one's house, prosperity
is assured. Anyone who meets a snake in the spring must try to kill it (or any bird
with its beak turned inwards).

7. Black animals are considered as a good omen, white as the opposite.

8. Storks, bats, weasels (or cats) and swallows are considered sacred.

11. Wolves or foxes which are killed are carried round by the men who kill them
with a view to collecting contributions, and the same is the case with any freak that
is born.

12. The flesh of the hedgehog has a healing property, and that of the bat magic
powers.

13. The bat is used as a means of winning love.

1 4. Cakes are made in the likeness of doves or of two-headed eagles.

15. The dead appear in the shape of a dog, a weasel, a white he-goat or a pig.

[ 121 ]

Nos. 81-82.] MAN. [1904.

16. Witches appear in the same shapes as in the last question.

21. Lambs and fish.

22. Upon the tops of buildings, of water-mills and wind-mills are placed wooden
heads representing lions, and this in order that the buildings may be durable. In the
fields are set up skulls of animals in order to protect them.

The above answers are from an unspecified locality, and sent by a correspondent
who did not add his name.

II L

The following answers were kindly sent me by the British School at Athens, and
were obtained from a squad of soldiers recruited in the Cyclades : —

1. Ox, sheep, cat, portend good luck if you meet them. Hare, crab, wolf, snake,
portend bad luck if you meet them.

2. Sheep, ox, dog, poultry, cats, bring good luck to the house they are in. Goats,
rabbits, pigeons, bring bad luck to the house they are in.

3. A dog howling, a hen crowing like a cock and a crow are death omens.

4. Larks are ominous of the price of corn and other crops.

5. Hares are believed to run through the crops when they wave before the wind.

6. If one meets a snake in spring time one should try to kill it ; likewise any bird of
prey (lit., with beak turned inwards).

7. Black animals are lucky, white unlucky.

8. Stork, bat, cat, swallow, are held sacred.

11. Wolves or foxes that have been killed are carried round by the killer for the
purpose of collecting subscriptions, and so are any prodigies that are born.

12. The flesh of the hedgehog has healing virtue, that of the bat magical virtue.

13. Use is made of the bat to win love.

14. Cakes are made in the form of pigeons and two-headed eagles.

15. The dead appear in the form of dog, hare, white goat or pig.

16. Witches take the same forms.

21. Lamb or fish.

22. On the top of wind-mills or water-mills they put wooden heads of pigeons or
lions to preserve the buildings. Heads (skulls) of animals are put in the fields to guard
them. N. W. THOMAS.

REVIEWS.
Bibliography. International Catalogue.

The International Catalogue of Scientific Literature : P. Physical Anthro-
pology. Second Annual Issue. London, 1904. 8vo. Pp. viii + 299. 22x14 cm.
Price 15*.

The secoud annual issue dealing with the year 1902, save in so far as it was already
included in the previous issue, contains 1,861 entries in the authors' catalogue, an increase
of 20 per cent. To damp the joy of the subscriber, however, the price is advanced
40 per cent.

The volume is issued without preface, and one would not have been needed if the
slips from the various countries had been prepared on a uniform system, that is to say,
if the regional bureaus or their delegates had been agreed (1) on what was to be inserted
and what omitted, (2) that what teas inserted was to be classified topically and topo-
graphically. As a matter of fact, the Americans confine themselves solely to physical
anthropology, excluding sociology, religion, and linguistics. The Germans, French, and
Australians, and possibly others, give us for the non-physical papers authors' and topo-
graphical entries only, leaving us to guess at the contents from the titles. They do not
include more than a small proportion of works on religion and sociology. The Revue

[ 1*2 ]

1904.] MAN. [No. 82.

deVHist. des Religions, the Archive fur Religionswissenschaft, and Vgl. Rechtswissen-
schaft are not indexed. The English collaborator, in the third place, excludes nothing
published on these subjects ; the entries are systematically classified topically and
topographically. Now it is quite obvious that no useful purpose is served by classifying
a part only of the entries on a given subject ; the German entries must be done (either
in Germany, which will probably involve grave errors of classification, unless the con-
tributor is a specialist ; or in England, where the classifier will not have the book or
article to guide him), otherwise the classification of the English entries might just as
well be omitted altogether, for in order to cover the subject one must read through the
authors 1 catalogue. The omission of non-physical articles altogether, although regrettable
in a way, is, perhaps, of little importance at present, provided we are told what the
policy of each country is. In the sections from 9,000 to 9,500 much cannot be expected
from twenty-nine different contributors, many of whom are certainly non-specialists,
endeavouring to classify by far the most complicated part of anthropology on a uniform
system. Until provision is made for the work to be done by specialists, or at any
rate revised by specialists, probably the loss is not very great.

If other sections are incomplete it might have been expected that in somatology at
least there would be no cause for complaint. This is, however, not the case. In 1902
there appeared in the American Anthropologist thirty-two articles in all ; of these, five
or six are strictly somatological and there is also an obituary notice that should appear
in the catalogue. As a matter of fact, only four of the articles are included. In 1901,
it may be noted, the omissions were glaring : under 0050, Russell, " Laboratory
Outlines of a Course in Somatology " ; under 0200, Hrdlicka, " A Painted Skeleton from
N. Mexico " ; and under 0750, Hrdlieka, " An Eskimo Brain " (46 pp. with four plates),
and minor items. An annual bibliography that is not complete caunot save the
investigator who wants all the facts from the labour of preparing his own bibliography.
He can never tell where the omission will occur. It is to be hoped that these and other
omissions will appear in the next issue of the catalogue.

Turning from faults of omission, we may examine how far the individual papers are
accurately and adequately indexed. More especially in the foreign entries there is a
tendency to omit the topical index number. Thus, to take a few cases, a paper on
Magyar Physiognomy and Character does not appear under 0130; Batchelor's "Sea-
girt Yezo " has no topical index number ; Groos's " Play of Man " seems worthy of a
place in 94.00 under Amusements (why are not these sub-headings given in the schedule,
or, at any rate, indexed on pp. 5-6 ?) ; Jorgenson's " Anthropological Researches in the
Faroes " has no topical index number, and Miiller, " Die Aeussere Erschcinung des
Munyamwezi, " should certainly have come under 0110. Duckworth, "Note on . . .
Hylobates mulleri," does not appear under 2520, nor does Welcker, " Gewichtswerthe
des Korperorgane bei . . . den Thieren " ; nor Parsons, " Blood-vessels of Mammals."
Grunbaum, "Note on Blood Relationship," should be classified under blood (? Varia, as
no number is provided for it ; jaw, too, should have a separate number). Kollmann,
" Die Fingerspitzen," should appear under 1030. Pontiatin, " Contribution a Tetude du
tatouage," has, in the authors' catalogue, the reference number 1000 but does not appear
there.

The classification is occasionally wrong, though in this respect there is an advance
over the first issue. Spitzka, " Encephalic Anatomy," should surely come under 0750
instead of 0100 ; different papers on the weights of bodily organs or parts appear respec-
tively under 0100, 0140, and 0150 ; which is right? A paper on the relation between
the size of the skull and the development of speech is, strangely, placed under 0170
(appearances related to age) instead of 0160 (growth), and possibly 2000 ; measurements
of conscripts appear under 0160, though they are probably ordinary anthropometric
tables ; and hypertrichosis appears under 1060 and 109Q.

[ 123 ]

No. 82.] MAN. [1904,

Iq all these cases the catalogue itself supplies, or can be made to supply, the
necessary correction, but in other cases this is not so. Let us take as an example a paper
by Sir W. Turner, Contributions to the Craniology of the People of the Empire of India,
Part 2 : Aborigines of Chota Nagpur . . . , the Veddahs and Negritos* This has
received the index numbers 0220 (skull) and 5400 (India). Less distinguished authors
of less important papers get five or six index numbers on occasion, not to speak of the
papers on back scratchers, ghosts, and other small fry, which are really not wanted at
all, any more than many of the half-page notes from Folklore. Sir W. Turner's paper,
if completely indexed topically would require the following additional numbers (the
important ones being distinguished by an *) 0130, 0140*, 0350, 0400*, 0550*, 0570*,
1050, 1100, 1600. If the topical index is to be of the slightest value it is no use for
the indexer to take the title as bis guide ; but in this case he has clearly not taken the
trouble to look at the paper. On the geographical side the index er's error is in part
corrected by the title ; from the word " negrito " it will be apparent to the anthropologist
that other countries are dealt with, for the presence of negritos in India is very far
from being generally acknowledged. As a matter of fact, thirteen of the fifty-two pages
of the paper and one of the plates relate to the Audamans (index letter ? ma.) and the
Sakai (index number, 5900 e.g.).

It is clear that inaccuracy of this sort is an even more dangerous fault than omission,
which may be, in the cases noted above, due to temporary causes. If the catalogue
cannot even be trusted for important papers like Sir W. Turner's, one's confidence in it
will be small. It is to be hoped that the case is exceptional.

The number of misprints is fairly large. One paper has the word " JEgean " in its
title ; probably to see which looks nicest this appears in the other two sections as JEgsean
and JEgaean ; perhaps the catalogue will now decide for the ordinary form of the word-
Semeliki Forest, which appears six times, may be due to some abstruse linguistic research.
It is spelt Semliki in the article indexed. Both are harmless eccentricities, but the
same cannot be said of errors in authors' names. One writer appears as Quiltar and
Guiltar ; which is right ? Here we are given our choice, but the case of Mr. Adam
Sedgwick, F.R.S., is hard indeed. His name appears twice, and each time as Sidgwick.
Surely the Fellows of the Royal Society may look to bave their names spelt right.

On the whole the impression created by the catalogue is that a great deal of space
is wasted by want of judgment — shown in including worthless papers, some of which
contain no facts, and still more by repeating in full each entry, some of which are ten or
twelve lines in length, each time it appears, and this is frequently four and sometimes five
or six. On this point 1 am expressing myself in a forthcoming number of Globus, and I
will not repeat myself here. 1 merely point out that no advantage is gained to counter-
balance the extra cost. The index numbers will, if the entry is, in all but one case, cut
down to one line, tell us what the subject is. The reduction in cost thus effected would
remove the necessity for limiting the index numbers to an average of three, and thus
make the catalogue vastly more useful. Possibly the scheme of a card catalogue, now
apparently dropped, had something to do with the repetition of titles in full ; but in a
properly equipped bibliographical institute such clumsy expedients are avoided. Both
this point and the different ideas held ou the inclusion and indexing of papers are
subjects that should without delay engage the attention of those responsible for the
catalogue. On one point a little trouble would add considerably to the value of the
catalogue. There is more than one tribe which in the topographical section falls into
more than one division ; the Ainos, for example, both in Siberia (which includes
Saghalien) and in Japan. A list of these tribes might easily be prepared, and this
would facilitate the work of reference in the case of those unfamiliar with the exact
lines of geographical demarcation. N. W. THOMAS.

[ 124 J

1904.] MAN. [No. 83.

India. Risley: Gait.

Census of India, 1901, Vol. I. India. By H. H. Risley and E. A. Gait, qq
Calcutta, 1903. 34 X 22 cms. OO

The issue of Vol. I. of the Census of India, 1901, which contains the general
report on the result of the census, will be welcomed by all anthropologists. This census
has been carried out with a fulness and elaboration which were found impossible on
former occasions, and several areas were dealt with for the first time. These were
Balochistan (with the exception of Mekran and some other disturbed districts), the Shan
States, the Chin Hills, and other wild tracts in Burma, the Bhil country in Rajputana,
and the aboriginal villages of the Andamans and Nicobars. The total population
dealt with is 294,361,056, which in spite of famines and epidemics is an increase of over
seven millions on the figures of 1891. The enormous increase of over 33,000,000 shown
in the previous decade has not been maintained, but it is almost certain that the enume-
ration in 1881 was very defective, and this cannot be regarded as representing a normal
rate of increase. Broadly speaking, there has been an increase everywhere in the great
alluvial plains of Northern India and also in the extreme south, while a compact block
of provinces and states in Central India shows a decrease. The priucipal of these are
Bombay, the Central Provinces (with the states under these two administrations,
Haidarabad, the Central India Agency and the Rajputana Agency) all of which have
suffered from plague and famine.

The report was commenced by Mr. Risley, who wrote himself the important
chapter on Caste, and parts of some others. Mr. Gait took up the work when
Mr. Risley was obliged to leave it to take up another appointment, and he is responsible
for the greater part of the report (including the chapter on religions). The chapter on
languages by Dr. Grierson is an admirable survey of the whole enormous field of Indian
linguistics, and will serve as an introduction to the Survey of Indian Languages on
which he is engaged, and of which the Bengal volume has already appeared. The total
number of vernacular languages, not including dialects, is no less than 147. Of these,
however, seventy-niue belong to one group (the Thibeto-Burman sub-family of the
Indo-Chinese family) and are spoken by a population of only 9,560,454. The Thibeto-
Himalayan branch alono shows twenty languages spoken by tribes on the southern face
of the Himalayas, aggregating only 425,814 persons. Opposed to this minute sub-
division we have the great Indo-Aryan and Dravidian groups spoken by populations of
219,780,650 and 56,693,799 respectively. The Indo- Aryan languages are given as
twenty-two in number, and of these nine languages (Bengali, Uriya, Bihari, Western
Hindi, Eastern Hindi, Panjabi, Marathi, Gujarati, and Rajasthani) account for a popu-
lation of 207,697,377, or two-thirds of the whole population of India. If the four
principal Dravidian languages are added (Tamil, Telugu, Cararese, and Malagalam),
which are spoken by 53,616,723, we have the result that about eight-ninths of the
population of India speak thirteen languages, while the remaining ninth speaks 134.

The most interesting point in Dr. Grierson's survey of the Aryan languages is the
classification into two groups which be calls the inuer and outer. The inner group
comprises Hindi in its various forms, Panjabi, Pahari (Western, Central, and Eastern),
Rajasthani, and Gujarati. It is surrounded by a circle of outer languages comprising
Kashmiri, Lahnda (hitherto known as Western Panjabi or Jatki), and Sindhi on the
west, Marathi on the south, and Bengali, Bihari, Oriya, and Assamese on the east.
These languages are all related in certain points not found in the inner group, and
surround it almost completely. The inner languages have broken through the circle
to the sea in one poiut only where Gujarati impiuges on the Arabian Sea. Dr. Griersou's
explanation of this fact is that the inner group represents the influence of a later aud
the outer friuge of an earlier Aryan invasion, and that the later invaders, penetrating
India from the north and north-west, drove back the earlier settlers to the west, east,.

[ 125 ]

No. 83.] MAN. [1904.

and south, and established themselves in a compact block in a central position in the
Upper Ganges valley. The theory is an interesting one and deserves careful exami-
nation. Dr. Grierson also finds traces in the western languages of the outer group of
an Aryan but non-Sanskritic influence, and certain of the still existing languages in the
tangle of mountains in the extreme north-west are also found to be, although undoubtedly
Aryan, not traceable to the old Sanskrit.

This theory, although originally (as first started by Dr. Hoernle) based on philo-
logical arguments, derives some support from the physical characteristics of the popula-
tion, as Mr. Risley shows in the chapter on caste, tribe, and race. The Panjab remains
to the present day practically a purely Indo-Aryan area, while the Upper Ganges
country now comprised in the United Provinces is an Aryo-Dravidian tract where the
later Aryan invaders were greatly modified by the aboriginal Dra vidians. Further
east, in Lower Bengal, there is little Aryan blood, the Dra vidians showing here a
Mougolian admixture, while through Central and Southern India the Dravidian prevails
almost unmixed with the exception of a strip running along the western coast of the
peninsula from Sindh to Coorg. Here the Dravidian population has been modified by
the admixture of a broad-headed race, which Mr. Risley denominates Scythian, and
identifies with the Scythian invaders of 2,000 years ago. This theory will probably not
meet with general acceptance, for it is not easy to understand how a conquering race
entering India from the north-west should leave the already established Aryan popula-
tion unaffected, and yet influence strongly the Marat has far to the south. Nor is the
historical evidence in favour of a Scythian invasion of South-west India ; as far as it
goes it only proves the establishment of a kingdom or kiugdoms in the extreme north-
west. These conquerors so quickly adopted the language and religion of India that we
may suppose them to have been not very numerous, and to have been entirely absorbed
in a few centuries. This leaves the broad-headed element in South-west India still
unexplained, but it is not necessary to exclude the idea of prehistoric migration of a
broad-headed race from Central Asia who may have already coalesced with Dravidian tribes
and been pushed southwards jointly with them by the successive Aryan invasions.

With this exception Mr. Risley's complete and well-considered arrangement of the
races of India deserves general assent. The map which accompanies chapter XI. shows
the result in a graphic form.

The population lying to the west of the Indus, and extending throughout
Afghanistan and Balochistan, is classed by Mr. Risley as Turko-Iranian, a term which is
fairly descriptive of its characteristics. The tentative inclusion of the Hazaras in this
family, however, can hardly bo maintained. It would not be possible within the limits
of Southern Asia to find two races more opposed to each other in facial form than the
aquiline-nosed Baloch and the flat-faced Hazara. The latter should undoubtedly be
classed as Mongoloid.

It is impossible to go in any detail into Mr. Risley's most interesting disquisition
on the development of caste, which should be carefully studied. He divides castes into
seven classes, viz. : (1) tribal, (2) functional, (3) sectarian, (4) castes formed by crossing,
(5) national castes, (6) castes formed by migration, (7) castes formed by changes of
custom. Totemism also receives attention, and the information collected during the
census shows that it is more widely spread in India than was till recently supposed.
On the strength of the Indian evidence Mr. Risley disputes the conclusions deduced by
Mr. Frazer from purely Australian data. He divides totemistic usages into two classes,
effective and ineffective, viz., those which influence evolution and those which do not.
Purely magical ritual is classed as ineffective, the effective practices being those which
bear ou exogamy. In India totemism is practically a form of exogamy, and as this
contributes to the evolutiou of the tribe, Mr. Risley considers that it may furnish the
clue to the real origin of the usage.

[ 126 ]

1904.] MAN. [No«. 83-84.

It is impossible to do more here than allude to the important chapters ou Religion,
and Marriage, due partly to Mr. Risley and partly to Mr. Gait. The interesting essay
on Auimism with which the chapter on Religions opens may be specially alluded to.
With these and a few other exceptions Mr. Gait is responsible for the bulk of the report,
which, on the whole, must be highly commended. It is to be regretted that a work of
this kind cannot be presented to the public in a more attractive form than that of a blue
book. The greater part of this report, if published as a well-printed octavo, in the form
in which a modern publisher would issue it, would certainly command a large circula-
tion. Perhaps the Government of India will consider the possibility of issuing it in
some such form. M LONGWORTH DAMES.

Africa, East. Van der Burgt.

Dictionnaire Francais-Kirundi. Par le R. P. J. M. M. Van der Burgt des r%m
Mission naires d'Afrique (Peres-Blancs). Bois-le-duc (Hollaude), 1904. 25 x Ot"
16 cm. Price 30 francs.

We should recommend the student, in using Pere Van der Burgt's book, not to
begin with the Introduction, but to consult the articles, u A re hitecture," " Char me "
" Guerir" " Ligende" " i?i/e," or any one of a dozen others which we might mention.
He will find, along with various theories which may be disregarded, a perfect mine
of valuable information. But a perusal of the Introduction — though not without
interest and profit if one has the patience to follow over 100 large pages with the
necessary attention — is likely to prejudice the reader against the whole book, as a mere
monument of wasted learning and ingenuity. The author's standpoint is sufficiently
indicated by his vindication of the Noachian deluge as universal (p. xliii), and his
assumption that Phoenician is a Hamitic language (p. cxix) : " Les langues chamites et
" Semites montrent une certaine sympathie, Tune pour l'autre. Elle sont euchevetrees
" en maint endroit. Qu'on pense a l'hebreu et au chananeen." Whether this position
is absolutely required by Roman orthodoxy we are unable to say ; the late Father
Stoppani seems to have been allowed a considerable latitude in interpreting the Mosaic
cosmogony. The origin of the name Africa occupies two pages and a half, which are
strongly suggestive of Mr. Casaubon's Key to all the Mythologies. We cannot
forbear quoting a specimen.

It is argued that though the Arabic word kafir means " unbeliever," this significa-
tion is only post-Islamic, and the original meaning was " black." " Chez les plus anciens
** etymologistes arabes, il veut dire : I'obscurite, la noirceur, la nuit, le couvreur. De
" vieux poetes nomment la nuit kq/ir, puisqu'elle couvre avec des tenebres noires."
(We suppose couv-rir, cov-er, &c, are to be deduced from the same root !) "Les Cafres
" done sont les Noirs. . . . L'egyptien ka (k) signifie : noir. ... En 6gyptien
" kaf est le singe noir. En bambara akafi e'est l'homme noir, com me kabilo en
" bidsogo, ogabu en kamuka. (The Kamuka dialect of Nupe ?) En namaqua ckhip
" e'est le rhinoceros noir. Gbei en dewoi, gberi en gbe, gbalwi en salum, kupirira en
" muntu (Yao ?) signifie : noir, et guafili en boko ; la nuit (noire). Les Phula, selon
" le Dr. Koelle, nomment les nymphes silvestres des Kaffiri. Les mots ham et ka, kaf,
" af, ap, au (= noir) sont identiques. Les Bambara, pour lesques akafi est le negre,
" ont le mot kafulo signifier : le commencement. De leur cote les Zulu du Natal ont le
" mot kafula pour exprimer l'idee de magie, de charme, d'encbantment,.et chez les Xosa
" isikafulo signifie egalement : goe'tie."

The black rhinoceros, according to Mr. Selous, is not black, and the Yao verb
pilila (or pirira : ku being the sign of the infinitive) scarcely proves anything in this
connection ; while we should require some further authority than Koelle's Polyglotta
Africana for the Fula wood-nymphs called " Kaffiri." It is interesting to learn that
Solomon's qof were not apes, but the okapi of Uganda, and that Seth, " the Hamite

[ 127 ]

Nob. 84-85.] MAN. [1904.

antagonist of the Semite god Osiris,* is represented with the head of an animal
previously unknown, which tarns out to be the okapi. It would be waste of time to
analyse all this so-called evidence any further. It is only fair to add that P. Van der
Burgt prints a (?) after the word " Semite" in this connection.

Fortunately, the body of the work deals, in the first instance, with observed facts,
carefully reported. The Kirundi language is spoken over an area much wider than
that of Urundi proper, which occupies the western shore of the north end of Tanganika,
beginning some 30 miles north of Ujiji, and extending as far as the bend of the Kagera
Nile in the north-west. But the laoguage is spoken throughout Uhha in the south and
Ruanda in the north— as far north, in fact, as the Kirunga volcano. Urundi is inhabited
by three races : the conquering Watutsi, who are Hamites (and therefore a derivation
from ku tuka, " to insult," is suggested !), the subject Warundi,and the Watwa pygmies.
The royal family are of a different race from the Watutsi, known as Wahinda, to which
also the chiefs of Ruanda and some other countries belong (cf the striking portrait of
King Lwabugiri on p. 172 of Count Gotzen's Durck Afrika von Ost nach West). The
Watwa are " chasseurs, forgerons, portiers " ; they have no language of their own, but speak
an archaic dialect of Kirundi. (This is interesting in view of the fact that the Batwa
vocabulary given by Dr. Ludwig Wolf is evidently Bantu and very similar to the language
of the Baluha, among whom these pygmies live. It is possible that such distinctions as
we find may arise from their using an older dialect of Luba.) Some interesting texts of
native myths and traditions, with interlinear translation, are given, s.r., Legende and
Literature. The Warundi trace the genealogy of their chiefs from a certain Ruhinda,
who is said to have come from the south, apparently about a.d. 1500. The royal
houses of Ruanda, Karagwe, Uuyoro, Xkore, and some others also have an ancestor
Ruhinda, but he came from the north — from the aucient kingdom of Kitara. The Arab
traders who reached Ujiji in 1845 were the first outsiders to come in contact with the
Warundi ; those living on. the lake shore were visited by Livingstone and Stanley
in 1871.

It is useless to attempt to condense within the limits of a short uotice one tithe
of the information to be fouud in this (in spite of its peculiarities) most valuable work ;
it will be enough to refer — in addition to those already mentioned — to the articles
" Dynastie" " Devin" " Esprit" " Goetie" " Maries" and the Supplement, though
that, too, contains a certaiu amount of mythology run mad. How much warrant
P. Van der Burgt has for establishing a relationship between Bagawrfa and Wahiwrfa
on the strength of the nd common to both words, or for calling tig the root of words in
which it occurs (ng^ombe, Mulungu, &c), and, finding it in names of various animals,
deducing thence (by way of the " Persian word, XKtioda ") m suggestion of " Zoolatrie
t'gyptienne," I had rather not attempt to decide. A. WERNER.

Algeria. Tripp.

Beautiful Biskra," The Queen of the Desert." By C. Howard Tripp. London : qp
Bemrose and Sons, 190.3. 93 pp., with illustrations. 20 x 15 em. Price 1*. DO
This small book is the record of a five weeks' trip to Biskra in the African desert.
As the author went by sea via Marseilles and returned overland through Italy and
France, it is obvious that he had not much time at Biskra. In fact, two-thirds of the
book are taken u\1 with an account of the outward and homeward journeys. However,
Mr. Tripp seems to have spent the little time he had to good purpose, and his book will
be found of considerable use by any casual tourist who may intend to visit this neigh-
bourhood, for not only does it give an account of Biskra and its people — though this is
somewhat sketchy — but it also advises as to the best hotel, and gives valuable information
as to the times of the different trains. The photographs which illustrate the book are
excellent, a great number of them illustrating native types and customs. H. S. K.

Printed by Ktre \xd Spottiswoode, His Majesty's Printers, East Harding Street, E.C.

Plate I— J.

Man. 1904.

Fig. 1.

Fig. 2.

Fig. 3.

1904]

MAN.

[No. 86.

ORIGINAL ARTICLES.

With Plate I-J.

Solomon Islands. Edge-Partington : Joyce.

Note on Funerary Ornaments from Rublana and a Coffin qq
from Sta. Anna, Solomon Islands. By J. Edge- Par ting ton and QD
T. A. Joyce y M.A.

The specimens figured on the accompanying plate, numbered 1, 2, 3, and 5, were
obtained from graves of Rubiana, Solomon Islands, by Rear-Admiral (then Captain)
Davis during the punitive expedition in 1901. They are, it is believed, the first speci-
mens of this character to reach this country. In 1894 Admiral Davis presented to the
Christy Collection a miniature basketwork hut containing a skull, probably that of a
chief (Fig. 7, reproduced, by permission, from the Ethnographical Album of the Pacific,
by J. Elge-Partiugton, Second Series, Plate 98). It was found entombed beneath a cairn
of stones, into which were placed sticks bearing ornaments of tridacua shell secured by
rattan lashings. In the plate these slicks and ornaments appear as Figs. 1, 2, and 3.
They are probably of some age and display considerable weathering. Inside the skull
house were found certain massive rings, also of tridacna shell, similar in every respect
to Fig. 4. When these
rings are compared with
similar objects still in use,
it seems highly probable
that some at least were
rough copies, made for
funerary purposes, of rings
worn by the deceased as
breast-ornaments (bakhea).
One of the latter, as worn
at the present day, appears
as Fig. 6 of the plate ; it
was obtained by Admiral
Davis from Ingova, the
great chief of Rubiana, and
is composed of tridacua FI °- 7.— mortuary hut containing the skull of a chief
shell from coral upheaval. 0F mbiana, wlomon islands.

One side is marked with a faint yellow tinge, a characteristic which rendered it of con-
siderable value in the eyes of the owuer. At the back is a thin plate of turtle shell,
fastened by meaus of a lashing of red braid, from which depends* an ornamental fringe of
European bead-work, edged with rows of bats' teeth. These rings, it appears, occur
among the shell ornaments fastened to the sticks (Figs. 1 and 3).

Dr. Codrington mentions the fact that at the funeral of a chief, his ornaments were
buried with him, and that they were frequently dug up again, probably at the same
time as the exhumatiou of the skull. Of these funerary objects the most striking by
far is the large tridacna slab carved in a fretwork design, aud measuring 27 cm. in
height (Fig. 5). From information received it would appear that this was originally
the "door" of a mortuary hut similar to that shown in Fig. 7.

The design of this slab is particularly interesting, especially when viewed in
connection with the smaller plaque shown in Fig. 2. In the former the design
consists of a double row of small anthropomorphic figures, dancing with arms ukimbo
and knees bent outward, and weariug large ear ornaments. The design is represented iu
the solid, the portions unessential I hereto being cut away. Now it is quite a com-
prehensible phase in the history of artistic evolution that the artist copying a design in

[ 129 ]

No. 86.]

MAN.

[1904.

pierced work s!io;ild at some period be ]m\ to pay m^e attention to the spaces which he
was eng'i;.rod i i forming thau to the portions left in the solid. Hence, in the centre of
the upper row of figures we find the symmetry of the pattern interrupted by the

development of unmeaning curls and flourishes. Supposing,
then, that the design was fated to become conventionalised
on these lines, and paying attention solely to the vacant
spaces in the pattern, the design on the extreme top edge
cf the large slab (Fig. 8b) would seem to be derived naturally
from the bent arms of the little figures (big. 8a). The
smaller plaque in Fig. 2 shows two bands of this same pattern
a trifle more conventionalised by the disappearance of their
bodies (Fig. 8c). Returning to Fig. 5 of the plate, Jind
considering the spaces between the legs of the two figures
on the extreme right of the secou 1 row, we find an anchor-
like pattern (Fig. 87), which also has its counterpart in the
smaller ornament (Fig. 8v). Again, the " nail "-like pattern
displayed by the latter (Fig. 8g) may reasonably be conceived
as evolved from the spaces betweeu the legs of the dancers
(Fig. 8/*), though in this case the design is more conven-
tionalised and has Wen turned on its side. Going a step
further and comparing Fig. 2 with the shell plaques on Fig. 3,
it would appear that the desigu of the latter is derived in its
turn from the former (Fig. 8h). From the above, therefore,
it may be concluded that Fig. 5 is the older of the two, and
preserves the original pattern, of whioh Fig. 2 shows the
degraded form. It is possible that the reduction in size of
these ornaments contributed to that degradation. There is
in the British Museum a fragment of what must have been a
£ ^^^*^ r ^ ^ ^^ somewhat smaller carving of this class,* of which the exact
* ^^^^^^I^T'I nature and use have only recently been explained by the
i 1 *J» ■ + discovery of the comparatively perfect specimen. The design
on this fragment would seem similar to that on Fig. 2, but
it has been further conventionalised ; Fig. 8e passing to 8i,
and the symmetrical " nail " pattern, of which 8g represents
half, to 8k.

One other point of interest in connection with these grave-
ornaments is the occasional occurrence of vertebral bones
attached to the wooden supports. Possibly this points to
the fact that the inhabitants of Rubiana lagoon, who were
notorious head hunters, were iu the habit of decorating the
graves of the chiefs with heads of the prisoners whose bodies
had contributed to the menu of the funeral feast.

The wooden figure of a fish containing a male human
skull (Fig. 9) was obtained about the same period on the*
island of Sta. Anna. Admiral Davis believes the form of
burial exemplified iu this specimen to be that in common use
on the island, and further, that in the case of a chief the
whole skeleton was so enclosed, since there were certainly
a number of very large wooden sharks («c) suspended in the
Tambu houses.

15-

AAA

slillfii

a- inijn
*. TTTTT

FIG. 8.

DETAILS OF PATTERNS ON

FUNERARY ORNAMENTS.

* Set*. KVhjiographical Album of the Pacific, by J. Erlge-Partington, second series, pi. 119.

r 130 ]

1904.]

MAN,

[No. 86.

Dr. Codrington (Melanesia jis, p. 261) states that on the death of a chief or of a
man mix'li beloved by his son the body is suspended in his son's house, enclosed either
in a canoe or in the figure of a sword-fish (Hi). Favourite oildren are treated in the
same wav. The figure of the fish is cemented after the same method as that employed in
canoe-building, and then painted, ami no smell whatever proceeds from it. (These, no
doubt, were the larger fish seen by Admiral Davis.)

Sometimes the corpse is kept in this way for years, either in the house or in the
oha, or private canoe house waiting for a great fuueral feast. When a year of good
crops arrives a man will say, * 4 Now we will take out father." The corpse is then taken,
if that of a comparatively inferior person, to the common burial ground, if that of a chief,
to the family burying place. The skull and jaw bone are taken out and these are called
MangitCi which are saka, i.e., hot with spiritual power. The Munyite is enclosed in the
hollow wooden figure of a bonito fish and set up in the house or in the oka. The figure
of the fish here shown is evidently connected with this last burial rite.

The inhabitants of the Rubiaua lagoon and neighbourhood had made themselves
notorious on account of the number of murders perpetrated both on white men and
native* during their head-hunting expeditions, and severe measures had to be adopted.
In dealing with natives
inhabiting islands covered
with dense bush coercion
is difficult, as the destruc-
tion of their houses can
soon be remedied, the
natives themselves dis-
appearing into the bush
until the white man's
man-of-war has departed.
The Solomon Islanders
were ancestor worship-
pers, and therefore the

severest punishment which could be inflicted upon them would be the destruction of
their burying places, for, as Dr. Codrington (Melanesians, p. 125) points out, "a mau
" in danger may call upon his father's, grandfather's, or uncle's ghost, or the disembodied
" spirit of the deceased, for on the death of a distinguished man his ghost retains the
" powers that belonged to him in life in greater activity and with stronger force ; his
" ghost is therefore powerful and worshipful, and so long as he is remembered the aid
" of his power is sought and worship is offered to him " (id., p. 254). On the same
page Dr. Codrington refers to the practice of taking the head of a chief, constructing a
basket and a house for it, and calling it a tindalo, for " they believe that every tiudalo
was once a man." It is evident, therefore, that in destroying these cairns or tindalos
Admiral Davis was inflicting upon the natives the severest punishment possible, and
one which robbed them of their " natural calls for help in danger and distress." In
fact, this method of castigation alone would seem adequate to bring home to the native
mind the enormity of offences locally regarded as venial. In earlier days murder was
punished by a simple fiue of so many pigs, and consequently the ralueof a white man was
assessed in pigs, aud victims were purchased accordingly when opportunity offered. Of
the specimens figured Nos. 1, 2, 7, and 9 are in the British Museum ; Nos. 3, 4, 5, and
6 are in the possession of Mr. Edge-Partington. J. EDGK-PARTIJS'GTON.

T. A. JOYCE.

FIG,

9. -MODEL OP A FISH ENCLOSING 8KULL OF A
STA. ANNA, SOLOMON ISLANDS.

[ 131 ]

Nos. 87-88.]

MAN.

[1904.

India. Anderson.

A Method of Inducing Artificial Sleep in Children in India* By

■it (taken by myself iu 1900) illustrates a era
method of Inducing ar tinea) sleep in children, by mean* of water* largely practised in
- imla d!sl i le Htmali

spring of water. The bed fa generally tren lid 10 carry off the water after

and thick layer of drt "g.

placed on this bed, on its ildi downward!, ami carefully and

entirely covered with la of a blanket, with the exception of the an

part of it8 1 1

hollow bai ipout,

about 18 incln
arranged to sfiow
moufl low of •'
with a toll of ftbon
to two painsi bui

not on the eh]

It takes aliout a qi

of an hour before the

Child fallfl info a heavy

slumber, which lata for

OUt three I

This en led on all the year round— usually from 7 to II a.m. and from

2 to 8 p.m. ; iic shade of a large tree, bctl i out iu the open.

The children of the bi ^es have a small hut, of matting <>r tlnteh-work. made for

hem over the bed-

The custom, ii- fjir us I could ascertain, is oonlned to Hindoos ami bee been carried
out forages — from time Immemorial I wai informed,

The natlvei state, that if their children are not subjected to this treatment, from
infancy to the age of uboni ten or eleven years, tb lubjeel to a i hloh

- theni tO turn yellow — pine away mid die.

This custom is. I believe, confined solely to the Simla district. I refrain from
giving any opinion of it from i medical point of view. J. II. ANDEBSON.

BjelBkosltohe : Thomas.
I by /.. C, /;,■

Herzegovina : Animal Folklore.

Animal Folklore from the Herzegovina, i oUtvteit by l. <*. &jet§

nmunicated hy A 1 ! W* Thomas, 00

I be following repHea to my questionnaire appeared in Karadjttch for March 1901,
re difficult to understand and a conjectural translation is mai
by a ?«

1. Ueetinfl • wolf, if he pi the road, means good luck. Iteeting a bare
or a snake, it either road, means had hick. Meeting B bedgehog, if
he paset - by on the road, means good look. Hooting a frog, to. word m

" |, if be peas tna bad lo

In spring, for ■ young man to osslble a Inmb or a foal] menus pood

hick > calf or I kid, had look. A.S many swal you see for the first time

ring, so roanj all you pat on dm ear*

2. The snake called u hlaxna " (bouse leek) brings luck. This sort of snake you
must not kill, bill to prevent the Eainily being frightened by it, von must catch it on a

[ *&* ]

1904.] MAN. [No. 88.

split stick and take it far away from the house and let it escape with the words, " Blazna,
my blazna, thou wilt guard me, and hence (? forward) the bouse." If the blazna is
killed the master of the house dies. Th6y say in Mostar that a certain Glavasa killed
a blazna, and that in the same year he died, and that in the course of a few years all his
house became extinct.

If spiders spin many webs in the house it means that the house will be
" depopulated " : the family will either die out or emigrate. If a weasel makes itself
at home in the house it is good, because it will kill all the mice. Nowhere should a
weasel be touched, much less in the house, because it can scatter poisoned food and
poison the whole family in order. He who sees a weasel outside a house should say,
• 4 Weasel, if thou comest to us, our mice should bite off thine ears." Then they believe
that the weasel will come of itself into the house.

[In his Lexicon, Karadjic gives the formula, " O weasel, our mice greet thee,
" and say they will bite off thine ears." He explains this as the formula for a
man who sees a weasel, as from that time it kills and drives away all mice. The
word " lasa " is only used with laceza and has the same meauiug, " O weasely
weasel."]

If you bring ants into the house, it means wealth, and if you take them out of the
house, poverty.

A swallow brings luck to the house and so must not be touched.

If a chicken, having sung from time to time, ceases to sing, it foretells a death in
the household. Such a chicken must be caught and measured in this way : The
chicken's head is leaned against the fireplace of the house, and the chicken falls head
over tail going towards the doorstep of the house. If the head of the chicken comes to
the doorstep you must cut off its head with an axe on the doorstep, and throw away the
chicken. If it is the tail which comes to the doorstep, you must cut a little off its tail
and let the chicken go. Then it is believed that the evil is averted. If a chicken
in feeding or in drinking water stands on the edge of the bowl and stoops below it,
that, too, foretells death. Such a chicken must be measured in the above mauner. And
if an owl rests on the roof of the house, and swells up, that means death of one of the
family. If on the roof of the house crows collect and pick at the gable end, it means
that some one of the house shall die.

If frogs croak early in springtime the spring will be fine and the harvest
abundant.

7. Of a cock (" singer, song-bird, cock "), they say that it is most lucky for the
house if it is white without spots, therefore they like to keep a white cock in the house.
No one, at Christmas or Easter festivals, devotes a black sheep or ram as a victim.
They say that the devil prefers to change himself into a black ram.

8. The pigeon, die Lachtaube, columba risoria, is regarded by our Mahommedans
as sacred ; no one would kill one, even to save bis head. They say that she brought
Mahomed water for bathing, hence that black ring round her neck has remained from
the kettle in which she brought the water.

It is a shame to kill a swau, crane, or swallow.

9. When a man is suffering from asthma, it is necessary to kill a squirrel. The
entire body, at a good heat, under a very hot pot, and good coal, must be covered with
ashes, so that in the little furnace and ash all be turned to ashes. This cinder and
ashes of the squirrel is pounded into a powder and mixed up either with fresh butter
or honey, and, after fourteen days, is taken every morning, a small spoonful.

12. When a man suffers from fever (typhus) (? typhoid — M.B.), several crayfish are
taken. These crayfish are ground (?) and then, mixed with water, are given to the sick
man to drink up, but the crayfish are dressed on the sole of the foot aud remain twenty -
four hours.

[ 133 ]

No. 88.] MAN. [1904.

Hedgehog's fat is smeared on a fresh (lit. " living ") wound. Those who suffer
from falling-sickness have a little dog on their chest when they sleep. Those who
suffer from falling-sickness carry a donkey's hoof on their persons.

They put the skin of a white weasel without spots (? ermine) on the neck, for
angina.

When a child for the first time goes to school or business a swallow is caught, and
the child gives it water from his mouth and puts it in his bosom and lets it oat
through the right sleeve of his shirt that it may fly away. Then they believe that
the child will learn quickly, just as the water flows quickly, and the swallow flies away
quickly.

Hunters believe that if they let a snake crawl into their gun and shoot it out
they will be lucky in their huntiug.

14. At Christmas " pastor's cakes " are made. On the cake they make from dough
and attach to the cake, one picture of each animal that there is in the house in question.
This cake the shepherd breaks on the horns of the bell-ram. On this he watches which
crumb will fall off'. If some crumb falls off they say that someone of the household
will die during that year. This cake the shepherd himself eats, and gives something to
the sheep on whose horns he broke it. In some houses they give one of these pictures
from the cakes to each animal which is represented.

15. They believe that a man can Income a vampire, and as a vampire can change
himself into different forms of animals, but preferably he goes from the grave in the
form of a man or form of an inflated leather-bottle. The vampire preferably goes to his
own wife and lies down near her. A great sinner can become a vampire, especially a
usurer or swindler. A man can also become a vampire across whom before his death
lay four-footed animals.

16. A witch changes preferably into a butterfly when they see in the evening near
the house an unusual butterfly, they look out to catch it. When they catch it they burn
it a little in the caudle or the fire and let it go, with the words, " Come to-morrow, that I
give thee salt." If to-morrow some old woman from the village comes to ask for salt,
whether to borrow or otherwise, and if her clothes are burnt somewhere, no one washes(?)
any more, because she is not a true witch. A witch may be only a woman or a married
man, hence a woman who will be a witch as long as she is a spouse, she is "Mora"
(uightmare).

[iVora, given by Karadjic* as " der Alpdriicken, die Trixte, asthma nocturnum,
ephialtes, incubus, and K. gives a whole column to the word, with numerous quotations,
in connection with witches. — M.B.]

Mora preferably takes the form of a cock. It is said that no nightmare ever killed
a young man (i.e., unmarried), but he could never catch it. [In " Eugene Oniegin," by
Pushkin, Tatiana had a nightmare about, among the monsters, creatures with cock's
heads and goat's beards. — M.B.] In one case, he lights the candle, covers it with
a pot, and lays down to sleep. Then the nightmare comes and begins to stifle him.
Ho then as quickly as possible moves the pot and by the candle light sees the cock,
which he catches and shuts up in a box. When in the morning he opens the box, when
there is something to see, in the box lies a girl, just her whom he would love to kiss.

19. Of bears they believe that ihey steal not childreu but young women and girls to
their lairs. There they rub away her feet that she cannot escape, bring her food, and
have sexual intercourse with her, as a man with a woman. Of an unusually strong man
they sa,y "a boar begat him."

At (iacko there was thirty years ago a certain Mijitsa Tauoric, an exceptionally big
man, and he could eat a vast amount. In speaking he grunted a little, and there is no
one at (Jatsko this day who does not believe that he was no ordinary man, but that his
mother bore him to a hear.

r 1^4 i

1904.] MAN. [No. 88.

22. The skull of a bear they like to put on the fence round a beehive. If there is
none of a bear, then the fodder of horses or cattle together with horns. Round some
beehives there can be found twenty or more of such bone colleciions. This (they do) to
prevent the bees (escaping ? flying away ?)

There are plenty of such games at which both adults and children play. I will
here quote only a few. They play (or " a game of ") at animals and beasts, mice and cats,
chickens, sheep, and eagles. Animals, or " zivoera," as the game is called, is played
thus. This game is only played by boys, youths (lit., " by males and those half grown-
up "). All players sit round in a circle, the leader twkes a bundle— a twisted handker-
chief — and, twisting it, cries " Zhiver ! zhiver ! zhiver ! " The rest twist the finger and cry
the same as the leader. When the cries are at the loudest the leader hits one gently on
the shoulder with the bundle and asks him, " What art thou ? " This one says the name
of some animal, of whatever animal he can best imitate the voice. After that the " zhiver "
begins again, and a second and a third asks till all have had their turn. When each player
has takeu the name of some animal, then the leader again begins with *' zhiver," and again
strikes one with the question, "What dost thou eat, whose voice hast thou?" He
replies as quick as possible what he eats and then imitates the voice of that animal,
whose name he has taken, and as quickly as possible ; the leader then begins to cross
himself, crying " What is this devil, devil ? " This, too, cry all the rest gladly. " Deder,
one more," then he imitates as well as he can the voice of the animal in question.
The leader then says, " Does he know who is best?" If one appears then he tries
who can do it best. The leader then, with a couple of players, judges, and he who
can do it best strikes the other on the back with the bundle as often as the leader
judges.

"Mice and cats" are played by children. The players, boys and girls, arrange
themselves in a circle. One stands in the circle, that is the mouse, aud another runs
round the circle, that is the cat. The cat seeks to get into the circle and catch the
mouse, but the mouse protects itself and is cunning, and those who form the circle try
to prevent the cat from getting in. If the cat gets into the circle the mouse escapes out
of it. Then the cat " mious " and the mouse squeaks ; if the cat catches the mouse
then they change. Those two children who were the mouse and cat go into the circle,
but those two between whom the cat broke into the circle will be, the one cat and the
other mouse.

" Chickens " is played by. childreu. One child is mistress of the house, one is
a sitting-hen, and the rest are chickens. After the sitting-hen one chicken is caught,
and after that another, and so on in order until all the children are captured and
go behind the hen. The hen goes clucking aud lea^s her chicks, and the chicks follow
her clucking. When the hen finds the mistress of the house she asks, " What art thou
doing here ? "

I am lighting the fire. Because I am kneading dough.

But wherefore thy fire ? Wherefore thy dough ?

That I may arrange the tripod. That I may feed my chicks.

But why wilt thou a tripod ? But where are thy chicks ?

That I may arrange ray pan. Lo, we bring them to you. . . .

But why wilt thou a pan ?

At these words the mistress advances to take some chicks from the hen but she
defeuds them, aud in spite of all this she catches one some how or other. So it continues
until the mistress catches all the chicks. When she catches all the chicks then she
becomes hen and the ben becomes mistress.

tfc Sheep" is played by grown-up lads and people in the villages. One makes
himself the ram and another his master, the merchant. The merchant brings the sheep
to market so that he like a sheep goes on all fours and they cover him with some white

[ 135 1

Nos. 88-89.] MAN. [1904.

stuff. The merchant goes in front and the sheep follows him bleating, when they come
among the crowd one rises up and buys the sheep. When the merchant has sold his
sheep (at a gain) he goes out of that room, but he who has bought the sheep calls him
just as sheep are called with " tpre." On that, the sheep stands up, and he says to him,
" Tpre ! " Aud now the purchaser begins to cross himself, saying, " What is this,
what is this, devil, devil," and runs from one to another. The sheep does the
same and goes after him, and when they are making a din, the merchant comes in.
And he cries out at once in the doorway, " Hi ! what is this, what is this ? " The
sheep on this at once falls on all fours and begins to bleat. Now the purchaser asks
the merchant what he has sold him, and he says that he has sold him a sheep, calls him,
and he bleats back an answer. The purchaser does the same and the sheep again bleats
back, and so the purchaser is pacified and the merchaut agaiu goes away. As soon as
the merchant goes out, the same scene is repeated, and again the merchant runs
in, and the same game takes place as before. At last the purchaser begs the merchant
to help him to kill the sheep, to which he consents. Then they stretch out the
sheep as though for slaughter, and skin him. Now they cover him with a sheet-
and the merchant takes hold of some part of his body and asks who will buy it.
Someone of the company cries out that he will buy it and so on in order until
everyone of the party has bought something. Now the merchant and he that bought
the sheep from him bring scales to weigh the meat. The scales are a stout stick.
Then everyone in order, one after another, cries out that they measure out to him the
meat that he has bought. The one whom they call upon comes out into the middle,
lies down and crosses his legs over the stick, which the merchant and purchaser are
holding, each by one end. Then these skilfully twist the stick and turn him head over
heel*, saying at the same time a few words about meat. In this manner they all play
out in turn and the game is over.

" Eagles " is played on some broad open place, and played by grown-up lads. One
of the lads stands stooping, leaning his arms on his knees. A second runs up and jumps
over him and at ten paces stands in the same way as the first and so on, one after
another, until all have placed themselves like the first. This first one jumps over his
own neighbour and at once the second goes after him, and wheu all leap over again it
comes to his turn to jump.

Here is a game of " eggs." They fight with eggs, and whoso has the hardest eggs
wins.

With a kreuzer-piece "at" eggs. One child puts some eggs on the turf or holds
them in his hand. A second child aims at it with a kreuzer. If the kreuzer remains
in the egg, then the one who aimed wins it, and takes the egg for himself, but if
the kreuzer does not stick into the egg. then the kreuzer belougs to the owner of
the egg.

Aiming at eggs with stones. " Grown-ups " play at this game. Eggs are set up,
and the players walk away to a distance of forty to fifty paces, each player takes five
stones and aims at the eggs. If he hits an egg, it is his, but if he does not hit, he gives
eggs to him who puts them up. N. W. THOMAS.

REVIEWS.
Malay. Annandale : Robinson.

Fasciculi Mahiyenses. By N. Annandale and H. C. Robinson. Anthropology, q**
Part II. (a) ; published for the University Press of Liverpool by Williams and 00
Norgate, Loudon, 1904. Pp.116. 27 x 20 cm. Price 10s. Supplement, map, and
itinerary ; published for the University Press of Liverpool by Longmans, Green, & Co..
London, 1903. Pp. xlii. 27 x 20 cm. Price os.

[ 130 ]

1904.] MAN. [No. 89.

Part II. («) of the section of Fasciculi Malayenses dealing with anthropology,
of which the first part was noticed in Man, 1903. 89, starts with a detailed descrip-
tion, by Mr. H. Balfour, of the various types of musical instruments collected by
Messrs. Annandale and Robinson during their expedition.

The instruments are divided into three classes — percussion, wind, and stringed —
those belonging to the wild tribes and those of the Malays and Siamese receiving
separate treatment. The specimens of greatest ethnographical interest are found in the
*■ percussion " class. The Malay fishermen use a rattle of cocoauut shells for driviug
fish into their nets, and Mr. Balfour calls attention to the wide use of instruments of
identical character in the Melanesian region, which are " shaken either above or below
water to attract sharks." A note by Mr. Annandale to the effect that " the coast of
Patau i probably had at one time a large Bugis population " may be taken to emphasise
the " oceanic " affinities of this instrument.

Another interesting Malay instrument is the following : — " A light rod of bamboo
" split into two slender springy arms which are united below. On the arm of each is
" fixed a large shell (genus Ampullaria) ; a light stick or plectrum is passed rapidly
" to and fro between the shells, causing them to strike together very rapidly. This
" instrument is used by Malay children to imitate the souud of the rice-swamp frogs."
The peculiar interest of this instrument, besides the extraordinary accuracy of the
im'tation, lies in the fact that the only parallel Mr. Balfour is able to cite is found iu
Bosnia, where the peasants hold " two wooden spoons together with their bowls back to
'* back, rapidly passing the handle of a third backwards and forwards between the
'* bowls." A description of various drums and Jews harps completes this section.

Malay wind instruments are represented by trumpets, whistles, flageolets, an oboe,
bull roarers, and a musical windmill ; stringed instruments by various forms of the
fiddle. Chief in iu teres t among the instruments of the wild tribes is a percussion
instrument attributed by the Malays to the Semangs. This " somewhat resembles a
" tuning fork in principle, but is peculiar from the fact of its being furnished with stops,
" a very unusual feature, in percussion instruments. An identical instrument is described
44 by Dr. A. Schandenburg from the Philippine Islands under the name buncacan"
Flutes both for the mouth and nose, a monochord, and several zithers complete the
catalogue.

The name of the author is sufficient guarantee for the complete and scholarly
nature of the paper.

A chapter on the " Religion and Magic among the Malays of the Patani States " by
Mr. Annandale may be taken to be an amplification and continuation of a similarly
entitled paper in Part I. Further illustration is given of the power for good and evil —
mostly the latter— exercised by the spirits of the dead ; and there is also an interesting
discussion of the word kramat, which meaus generally " sacred," " lucky," or " accursed,"
and which is applied to persons, animals, trees, places and inanimate objects. In this
conuection is discussed the kramat hid up, " a person who is so intimate with the
** spiritual world that the spirits have become part of himself ; he is able to materialise
" them when others can only ensure their presence iu an incorporate condition, and
" when he offers them a sacrifice they devour it bodily, not merely consuming its savour
" (bahu) or soul (se man gat) as they do when an ordinary medicine man makes them an
u offering." In illustration certain of the legends surrounding the name of the great
'Toh Ni, Rajah of Rhaman, are related.

"Independent spirits " {hantu) are next discussed. Those are regarded as non-
moral and inferior to man — more akin to a wild beast. The following section is
devoted to " Familiars," of which the more interesting and terrible class are actually
made by magicians and sent out to prey on the souls or livers of the euemies of the
latter.

[ 137 ]

Nos 89-90.] MAN. [1904.

Connected wi'h the above is the section dealing with medicine, u the theory and
" practice of doctoring material bodies whether by means of material drugs or through
" spiritualistic agencies " Spirits are influenced by coercion and deception : the first
is applied by means of colours and objects which the spirits like or dislike, and in this
connection we find again the widespread belief that spirits are afraid of iron. Deception
is accomplished by means of sham offerings, traps, and similar devices. Sympathetic
magic also plays an important part in inducing or curing sickuess.

Mr. Annandale next discusses the customs of the Malayo-Siamese relative to birth,
circumcision, marrige, death, and social life, giving at the same time many interesting
superstitious in connection with these subjects. The people dealt with is the mixed
Malay (i.e., Mahometan) and Siamese (i>., Buddhist) population of the Patani States
and Senggora. Connected with birth we find various prohibitions which must be
observed by the woman before confinement, and also by her husband, for fear of injuring
the unborn child. The section concerned with funeral customs is particularly interesting
owing to the various methods of disposing of the dead employed in the various
communities. Among the Malays interment is universal ; among the Siamese of the
Patani States, Senggora, and Patalung, are found interment, cremation, and tree-burial
(temporary or permauent).

The rest of the volume is occupied by a description of the Malayo Siamese skulls,
pelves, and long bones brought back by the expedition, and by a discussion of the
measurements. The specimens* are somewhat few in number it is true, but the treat-
ment is thorough, and the publication of all data of this description, however meagre,
is a thing greatly to be desired. On the whole, the volume is well up to the high
standard of the first part. The results bear witness to a most careful and systematic
method of collecting anthropological data ; the facts are well and concisely stated, with
much illuminating detail as to their source and probable value. In fact, few points
have been omitted which would be likely to prove of value to the student in working
over the information set forth in the book. A good illustration of this really most
important point in the consideration of the anthropological value of the work is found
in a sentence at the beginning of the discussion of the Malay o-Siamese population of
the Patani States : "It is natural, seeing that we spoke Malay and not Siamese, that
" we should regard these customs and ideas from the Malay (i.e., the Mohammedan)
" rather than the Siamese (i.e., the Buddhist) point of view." This is only one of many
instances in which the authors have displayed a commendable frankness and consideration
for the anthropological student. The illustrations are uumerous and leave nothing to
be desired.

In a " supplement " to the Fasciculi has been published an itinerary of the
expedition, with short descriptions of the chief features and population of the localities
visited. Each author deals with that part of the country over which he worked alone ;
in cases where a locality was visited by both, the description is the result of collabora-
tion. It is illustrated with photographs showing characteristic scenery, and contains an
excellent and most useful folding map of the country between Patalung and Selangor.

T. A. J.

German Race. Wilser.

Die Gcrmanvn : Beitragc zitr Vblkerkunde* By Dr. Ludwig Wilser. Eisenach f\f\
and Leipzig, 1904. Pp. 448. 24 x 16 cm. Price 5 marks. uU

For well nigh three decades Dr. Wilser has been recognised as a leading advocate
of the most extravagant views held by German ethnologists on Aryan origins and allied
subjects. The countless papers, essays, and monographs which he has published ou these
matters in quite a score of the continental scientific and literary periodicals Iiq has now

[ 138 ]

1904.] MAN. [No. 90.

collected in the volume uutler notice, which he somewhat characteristically dedicates to
his " Volk nnd Vaterland." It is right, however, to state that the book is not a mere
reprint of these materials, which, in fact, have been largely re-written and mostly brought
up to date while on the whole " preserving their original stamp." Moreover, the papers
themselves, which cover an immense field, ranging literally from " The Beginning of
Life " to u Teutonic Style and German Art," have been conveniently arranged, not in
chronological order, but in strict logical sequence. Thus a long introduction dealing
with the cradle and dispersion of mankind, the human races and other somewhat
irrelevant matters, is followed by a " Prehistoric Section," devoted to u Races aud
Peoples," the " Indo-Germanic Linguistic Family," the " Branches of the Germanic
Stock," and the u Neighbours aud Precursors of the Germans " (Kelts, Slavs, Etruscans
and Rhetians, Scythians and Persians, Iberians and Semites). Theu comes the
"Historic Section," which is occupied exclusively with the Germaus of history —
Cumbrians and Teutons, Franks, Swabians, Goths, Burgundians, Lombards, Vandals,
and Saxons- and is distinctly the most valuable aud only trustworthy part of the work.
A concluding section treats of the metals, the " Riddle of the Runes and German Art,"
and there is a copious subject index, with lists of writers quoted aud of the author's
essays, this last comprising as many as seventy titles.

But with all this impetuous torrent of archaeological, linguistic, and historic lore,
Dr. Wilser has made but few conquests ; indeed, he frankly admits that he has failed to
gain general acceptance for his peculiar theories, and complains that his teachings and
warnings have mainly passed unheeded, while his " word has been as a w*x clamantis in
ere/no " (p. 423.) The wonder is that a writer of such undoubted intelligence aud
erudition could have possibly expected any other result. For what does he ask us to
believe ? Not merely that the Germanic branch of the Aryan family and the Aryan
family itself, but the whole human species originated in pre-glacia) times, not in West or
Central Europe, or in Asia or iu Africa, or anywhere between the tropics, but in the
extreme north, in the present Arctic regions now under ice or water. " All progress has
" come from the north, thence have migrated all new aud higher-developed species and
u races. No one knows the primeval home of any one of the large mammalian stocks,
" whose descendants have rauged the globe with man. Hence the only assumption is
" that their cradle, and consequently also that of man, is to be sought where it can no
" longer be found, in the now inaccessible high north-land of Arctogaea covered with
" eternal ice or marine waters " (p. 21). Theu driven thence southwards by the ever
increasing cold iu late pliocene times, primitive man found refuge in Central and West
Europe, whence with the retreat of the ice-cap he again advanced northwards and
re-occupied Scandinavia towards the close of the Paleolithic or beginning of the
Neolithic age. Meanwhile the men of the Stone ages had greatly advanced both in
physical and mental respects, so that the first occupants of Norseland belonged to the
high type, which is represented by the Cro-Magnon race, and is here re-named Homo
prisons. Iu the uow cong3uial climate of Scandinavia, and especially of South Sweden,
the conditions are assumed to have been most favourable for further progress, aud thus it
came about that both the noblest physical and liuguistic types, the meu of Aryan speech,
together with the germs of all the higher cultures, were first developed in Sweden, the
true ojficini gentium, the prospective if not the actual mother of all the arts, and
certainly the first home iu the post-glacial era of all the foremost peoples of historic
times.

This glowing picture, as will presently be seen, in no way exaggerates, but is rather
a feeble reflection of the fundamental ideas that lie at the root of Dr. \V User's speculation^
He, indeed, protests against this charge of speculation, of " the baseless fancies of au
uncritical dilettantism," aud ventures to assert with Newton that " hypotheses non
Jingo" But, apart from the historical section {see above), in the rest of the volume I

[ 139 ]

Wo. 90.] MAN. [1904.

can find little but pure hypothesis, a series of paradoxical assumptions unsupported by
auy evidence beyond wild conjecture and wilder etymologies. A period of about
12,003 years is allowed for the re-occupation of Sweden by Homo priscus after the final
retreat of the ice from northern Europe, and in that relatively short interval innumerable
cultured tribes and peoples, not only of Aryan but also of Iberian (Basque), Semitic,
aud Hamitic speech, are supposed to have been first evolved in a narrow corner of South
Scandinavia and to have thence streamed forth in successive waves of peaceful or hostile
migration, peopling a great part of the then known world and directly or indirectly
giving rise to most of the civilisations that sprang up, flourished, and decayed in the
JEgean lands, in the Nile Valley, in Mesopotamia, Persia, India, Scythia, aud elsewhere.
Of course all the Aryan groups — and these here include Illyrians, Thraciaus, Phrygians,
Scythian?, Mycenseans, proto-Hellenes, Rhetians, and Etruscans — were specialised, not
severally in their later homes, but all nearly simultaneously, or, at least, very rapidly one
after the other in their primeval Swedish cradle-laud. To the obvious objection that
the Aryan mother-tongue is and long has been more disintegrated in its assumed
Scandinavian home than, for instance, in Italy, Greece, Persia, or India, the curious
reply is made that, according to a natural law applicable also to language, the process
of disintegration (development) must proceed farthest where it began ; but Aryan speech
began in Sweden, ergo : — " So batten wir demnach auf rein sprachlichem Wege den
" Bildungsherd, den Verbreitungamittelpunkt der arischen Sprachen gefunden, der sich
" bemerkenswerterweise mit dom auf naturwissenschaftlichen Wege ermittelten der
" lichthaarigen Rasse deckt," &c. But English is in this respect the most analytical,
that is, the most developed of all Aryan tougues ; therefore on this showing the Aryan
cradle should be shifted from Scandinavia to Britain.

To the still more formidable objection that the Semitic and Basque languages are
not Aryan at all no reply is vouched. Nevertheless the Basques are still claimed to be
Swedes on the strength of their national name, " Euscaldunac," where Eusc (whence
bascones, Basques) is from the old German waskan = "to wash " ! The term erria,
" earth," as in Euscal erria, Basque earth (land), is also " arisch, sogar germanisch,"
from ero = Gothic, airtha = " earth." Then the Hindus are Wends, that is, Slavs,
therefore Swedes, because here H stands for W (Wend = Hind), the fact being that H
here stands not for Whwt for S (Hind'= Sindh), as it normally does in Persian, Greek,
and some other Aryan tougues. The objection raised (p. 160) against this established
derivation is futile, aud, indeed, only makes matters worse. Gentu is not a " Neben-
form " of Hindu, but is the Portuguese gentio (gentile) applied generally to the Hindus
and more particularly to the Telugus of the east coast. Why these impossible
etymologies should still find vogue in the classic land of sound and profound philological
studies is puzzling ; still more puzzling why any sane scholar should make them the
basis of otherwise incredible assumptions.

These assumptions, and especially the view that Sweden was "the origiual seat of
" that vast progress which we have to regard as the foundation of all later European
" civilisations" (p. 48), are at once put aside by the vast antiquity of the Babylonian,
Egyptian, Mintean, Sabsean, and pre-Mycenaean cultures, the begiuuing of which are now
traced back to times wheu Scandinavia must have presented physical conditions
analogous to those still prevalent iu Greeuland. They are also irrecoucileable with
Professor SergPs now fairly well established views regarding the North African origin
of the Iberians, Ligurians, Pelasgians, aud the other Mediterranean peoples, all of whom
had made very considerable progress iu general culture long before they could have
beeu brought under the influence of the rude tribes first issuing from Norseland. But
scaut consideration is meted out to the leading Italian anthropologist, whose arguments
are not refuted or even seriously discussed, but contemptuously dismissed as " wider-
sinnig" and " verkehrt," aud whose Arii e ltalici is described as "swarming with

[ 140 ]

1904.] MAN. [Nos. 90-91.

errora and contradictions," while he himself "mit seinen unklaren und verworrenen
u Gedanken hat bisher nur Unheil in der Wissenschaft gestiftet" (p. 430). Wilser's
own main contention is, perhaps, best summed up in Penka's remark (Kultur und
Basse, 1904, p. 17) that " L. Wilser's assumption that the Scandinavian Peuinsula is
" the primeval home of the Aryans is baseless ; it is no doubt the home of the
" Germans, but not of all the other Aryan peoples." And if not of these Aryans,
what becomes of the Semites, Iberians, Libyans, and all the other non-Aryan peoples ?

A. H. KEANE.

Germany : Archseologry. ScMiz.

Frdnkische und alamannische Kunsttatigheit im friihen Mitlelalter. Von Q4
A. Schliz ( Separat-abdruck aus Heft 7 der Berichte des Histor. Vereins Heilbroun, 5J I
und der Fundberichte aus Schwaben XI. Jahrg).

In these two detailed and comprehensive papers Herr Schliz presents us with an
analysis of early Teutonic burials in the Neckar basin, and incidentally affords much
information that has an important bearing on the corresponding antiquities of our own
country. An enumeration of the successive occupants of the south-west corner of
Germany is followed by an attempt to account for the different elements of ornameutation
that may be detected in the grave-furniture of the period. Artistic influences from
without are examined in connection with historical events in this area, and the result is
a series of canons for dating arms and ornaments, that may be applied with some
qualifications to other parts of Europe.

Ample knowledge of the collections at Stuttgart and other local centres is necessary
to do full justice to the conclusions here drawn, but one or two points of special interest
may be mentioned. A certain oriental influence is detected iu some of the early Gothic
productions, which developed on the northern shores of the Black Sea, and were
subsequently transmitted through central Europe to the Atlantic. But to Roman
captives or dependants is attributed much of the artistic education of the Teutonic
conquerors of the Empire. Traces of the civilisation uamed after La Tene are found
in the earlier Alemannic graves, and a notable parallel is to be found in this country at
Chessell Down, in the Isle of Wight. Counterparts of a late Roman comb found at
Ueilbronn have occurred in ciuerary nrns on two Anglo-Saxon sites in Lincolnshire ;
while a Roman spoon, which was associated with a remarkable Christian ivory diptych
of the late fourth century in a woman's grave, recalls several found in England. At
Kemble, Wilts, for instance, as at Heilbronu, the burjals were plainly Teutonic, and in
all probability pagan, while the Alemanni were not converted till tweuty years after the
coming of Augustine to England.

Several cemeteries are described in detail, and two at Heilbroun receive special
attention, one being Alemannic of the fifth century, the other Frankish of the sixth and
quite distinct. The difference in the weapons and ornaments of the two peoples is well
brought out, and confirmed by a useful summary of early German cemeteries beyond
the limits of the Neckar basin, such as Heideuheira, Ulm and Nordendorf. It may
here be added that a bronze vessel of coffee-pot form, like those mentioned from
Wonsheim (not Monsheim) and Munzesheim, has beeii found at Wheathampstead,
Herts ; but is there sufficient warrant for assigning them all to Italian or Byzantine
workshops ?

The author makes a very proper distinction between native and foreign productions,
and traces, in the earliest graves, Teutonic features that survived the migration from
the old country east of the Elbe to Swabia, in the course of the third century. The
earliest finds also include many articles obviously imported from Romanised Gaul.
From about 250-500 a.d., Roman provincial art gave the toue to their productions, and

[ 141 ]

Nos. 91-92.] MAN. [1904.

the appearance of a new style is heralded by the contents of Childeric's tomb, dated 481.
The Alemanni now became less dependent on the West than on the Eastern Empire, and
a strong Gothic influence reached i.liem along i lie valley of the Danube. The Frankish
conquest of the lower Neekar valley in 540 gave rise to a mixed style ; and before the
Carlovingian renaissance set in, Alemamiic art was also affected by Lombard, Scandi
naviau, and Anglo-Saxon models. It is unfortunate that in a summary on page 10 of
the first paper the following sentence occurs : " Aus dieser Zeitfolge geht hervor, dass
" je mehr Westiomische und La Tene-formen, desto jiinger die Grabfelder." The
italicised word contradicts the rest of the work. On pages 20 and 40 of the same paper
incorrect references to illustrations are of less importance, but the student will regret
that in the tabulated inventory the sites are not arranged in chronological order, so as
to show at a glance the characteristic relics of each period.

A handbook relating to the history ard antiquities of Swabia duriug the first eight
centuries of our era, with the sites marked on a map, with adequate illustrations and
uniform (preferably Roman) type, would increase our indebtedness to the author of
these two excellent papers. R. A. S.

Solomon Islands. Ribbe.

Zwei Jahre unter den Kannibalcn der Salomo-fnseln. Von Carl Ribbe. f*f%
Dresden : Hermann Beyer, 1903. 26 X 18 cm. uZ

It seems to be the destiny of the Solomon Islanders to have their anthropology
investigated by entomologists, and of naturalists to have their attention seduced from the
lower organisms by the absorbing interest of the native races with which they are daily
brought in contact. Mr. Charles Woodford, the present Deputy Commissioner, made
his first visit to the group in quest of insects and wrote a book about the natives ; Dr.
Guppy, a naturalist and geologist by inclination, succumbed to the same temptation, and
now Herr Carl Ribbe, a collector of butterflies and beetles, has produced the most
detailed account of the natives of the Northern Solomons that has yet been published.
It is none the less valuable in that the information it coutains is already ten years old,
for decay iu custom has set in rapidly in the last decade. Taking advantage of an
official visit of the German Administrator, Herr Ribbe sailed from New Britain foi
Bougaiuville in 1894, and the voyage, which was at first intended to last a few weeks,
was transformed into a stay of two years. At that time the islands, which have since
become a British Protectorate under the Samoa Convention of 1899, belonged to
Germany, and the author may in his intercourse with the natives have profited to some
extent by such official protection as his nationality implied. Nevertheless, with no
better medium than pidgin English, which is inferior to pidgin Fijian as the lingua
franca of the islands; with no better interpreter than "kanakas" returned from
the Queensland plantations; with no more observant residents to help him than the
beach-combing trader, the success with which he penetrated the inner meaning of
the rites he witnessed is remarkable. lie visited the south-west coasts of Bougain-
ville and of Choiseul, and the north end of Ysabel, but it was in the smaller
islands, Shortland, Treasury, Fauro, and the New Georgias, that his most important
studies were made. With his observations of the geology and fauna this review is not
concerned.

Withiu the limitations prescribed for the passing traveller who has not the
appliances of an anthropological laboratory at command, he did all that was possible in
compiling anthropometric data, though the number of individuals examined was too
small for his tables to be of much value. He compiled a short vocabulary of Shortland
Island ; had he been able to do the same forEstralla Bay in Ysabel, some very interesting
comparisons might have been made with the words preserved nearly 350 years before

[ 142 ]

1904.] MAN. [Nos. 92-93.

bv Me idaiia, whose list of words is printed in the Hakluyt Society's volumes for 1901.
The most complete of his studies w;is that of the funeral customs of the smaller islands
in which the headhunting which has decimated the weaker tribes finds its chief incentive.
His account of Rubiana less than three years after the sack and destruction of the
village by Captain Davis of H.M.S. Royalist shows how industrious this artistic people
were in rebuilding and decorating their houses, since little could have survived the stern
reprisals which can only be justified as punishment for the wanton murder of an
European, and the consequent safety of travellers such as the author. The book leaves
the reader impressed with the need for an exploration of the interior by a competent
anthropologist, for, since 1567, when a band of brave Spaniards accomplished it, no
European seems to have penetrated beyond the sound of the surf and returned to tell
the tale. To the anthropologist, no le9s than to the naturalist, it remains a virgin
field.

The book is copiously illustrate! wirh excellent photographs and a few indifferent
drawings, and there are besides some curious reproductions of native efforts with the
pencil, which in their naive and spirited style illustrate the artistic superiority of the
Solomon Islanders to the rest of the island racas. BASIL THOMSON.

Australia, Central. Spencer : Gillen.

The Northern Tribes of Central Australia. Bv Baldwin Spencer and F.J. #%q
Gillen. London : Macmillan, 1904. Pp. xxxv -f 784. 23 X 15 cm. Price OU
21 «. net.

The appearance of another volume from the haods of Messrs. Spencer and Gilleu is
a source of unreserved satisfaction to everyone interested in anthropology. Their
previous work bade fair to create a revolution in our methods, and was the subject of
voluminous controversy, which in itself was not without profit. Whether or no the
present volume will have the same exciting result remains to be seen, but it may be said
at once that it is full of controversial matter. The beliefs and ceremonies of races in
such a primitive state as are the natives of Central Australia are of such importance for
the general study of the human race, that it is by no means surprising to find a some-
what reluctant acceptance of the deductions of any third party. The observations of
the travellers cover a wide extent of country aud a large number of iribes, and the
record of observations will be an unfailing standard for such work in the future.
The conditions under which they were made seem to have been as perfect as anything
human can be ; the observers were well trained in their work, they were themselves
initiated into the mysteries they shared, and, by the generosity of Mr. David Syme of
Melbourne, they were relieved of the anxiety caused by the want of adequate means.
The present volume is au admirable monument of a year's work under such favourable
auspices. As might have been expected, it was found that, as the explorers proceeded
northwards, the beliefs and details of organisation of the tribes became somewhat
modified, but the interesting fact is recorded that over the whole of the immense area
traversed ** the belief that every living member of the tribe is the reincarnation of a
" spirit ancestor is universal." A belief of this kind would, prima facie, seem to
imply rather an ancient civilisation than an early stage of culture. The totemic
system is treated at considerable length, and here again our knowledge of the precise
value of it in the native mind is considerably extended.

The importance of such work as has been done by Messrs. Spencer and Gillen can
scarcely be overestimated, but it is to be feared that outside a very small circle it will
hardly be esteemed in our own country in accordance with its true merit.

It is a truly remarkable fact that in England there is probably less value set upon
anthropological studies than in any other civilised country. Everv day the need of it is

[ 143 ]

Nos. 93-94.] ' MAN. [1904.

felt ; it is, in fact, the necessary training of a diplomatic service for dealing with primitive
peoples, with the important difference that whereas the diplomatist can have recourse to
argument and common sense on the occurrence of a blunder, such an opportunity is rarely
given to the white man in dealing with the savage, whose method is to act first and
leave the argument to the end. Every " native question " must of necessity be treated
with due regard to the native's point of view, and his ideas, which probably seem to the
average unskilled official to be rooted in superstition and folly, would be looked at very
differently by anyone with even a smattering of anthropological knowledge.

Whether it be connected with birth, marriage, or even the lighting of a camp fire, the
native regards his acts with as much seriousness as the white man looks upon the gravest
actions of bis life. Englishmen have more concern with these matters than any other
nation, and if the work of Spencer and Gillen should serve no other purpose, it
at least demoustrates the necessity for intimate knowledge of tribal customs before
attempting any but the most perfunctory relations with a primitive people. The book,
however, will serve other ends thau this. It seems inevitable that these unfortunate
races should gradually disappear before the advanciug white. Then this admirable
record of these beliefs and extraordinary social organization will remain as probably
their only mouument and to teach us the origin of some of our own civilised survivals.
It is satisfactory to note that Professor Baldwin Spencer's strenuous labours have
been recognised by the King. C. H. R.

England: Archaeology. Windle.

Remains of the Prehistoric Age in England. By Bertram C. A. Windle, qm
Sc.D., F.R.S., F.S.A. The Antiquary's Books. London: Methuen, 1904. UT
Pp. xv-320. 22 x 14 cm. Price 7s. 6d.

All students of prehistoric archaeology owe a debt of gratitude to Dr. Windle for
this excellent summary of the evidence upon which our knowledge of the prehistoric
period in England is based. Dr. Windle's aim has been to place facts rather thau
theories before his readers, and by keeping this object well in view he has been able to
give au admirable and, in most eases, quite adequate account of the material relics of
the prehistoric age in- England, within the comparatively small space of 320 pages.
The chapters dealing with megalithic monuments, earthworks, and the Irou Agt — a
subject which has received too little popular treatment in England — may be cited
as examples of the ability with which the subject matter has been handled. On
the other hand, as, for instance, in the case of Neolithic and Bronze Age pottery
and personal ornaments, sometimes insufficient stress is laid upon important classes
of evidence : while, in a manual of this kind, it seems desirable that some effort
should be made to direct research by emphasising problems which yet remain to be
solved.

Although coucerned chiefly with Englaud, the author has not hesitated to expand
or explain his statement, where necessary, by reference to finds in other parts of the
British Isles aud ou the Continent. Dr. Windle has also departed from his original
plan of avoiding the discussion of theory in dealing with the question of eoliths and
mesoliths. His conclusions on these questions are opposed to the generally accepted
views, but most would agree that the evidence he adduces is far too weak to allow of
any definite pronouncement.

A word of praise must be given to the lists of localities which Dr. Windle has
appended to each chapter, as well as to the list of museums in which specimens are
exhibited. These lists, together with the copious references to the literature of the
subject, add greatly to the value of the book. E. N. F.

Printed by Kthk and Spotti^woodf, His Maiesiy's I'rinterp, East Harding Street, E.C.

1904.] MAN. [No. 95.

ORIGINAL ARTICLES.
With Plate K.

Siberia : Stone Implements. Abbott.

Stone Implements from the Frozen Qravel of the Yenisei. By qp

W. J. Lewis Abbott, F.G.S. OO

Some ten or twelve years ago rumours were constantly floating southward of the
remarkable burdens borue by the glaciers and ice-floes of high northern altitudes ;
islands of rock and mould capable of bearing vegetation were replaced by lenticular
patches of grfcvel, in which the precious yellow metal formed an incredibly large part.
AH this has now become ancient history, and the wonders of Klondyke have added
yet auother charm and fascination to the possibilities of ice work. Nor has the western
hemisphere the monopoly of the treasures of high polar latitudes, for the frozen soil
of northern Siberia attracted the notice of gold prospecters in this country. In one
instance one of our frieuds turned his attention to the mouth of the Yenisei, that
great drainer of Northern Asia, and, in return for mineralogical information supplied,
promised to keep a diligent watch for anything in the nature of man's handiwork, as
well as for the far more attractive gold ; and, faithful to his promise, he collected
everything he saw, which was a terrible undertaking, as the collection had to be carried
over ice and snow in sleighs, and on the back for many months. As 1 am not aware
that implements of this character have been reported before from so high a latitude as
70 degrees, and as they present so many features of interest, a description of them may
not be out of place in Max.

When these implements were submitted to Sir John Evans the same fact was the first
to strike him that had struck ourselves, viz., the variety of types represented. Here we
have iu oue river estuary types which might have been Polynesian, Scandinavian, Eskimo,
early Freuch or Indian or English. Of course, one cannot say that ail these are of exactly
the same age. Ice laughs at the flat consecutively-numbered leaves of a book, or the
chronological succession of orderly aqueous formations, aud rolls round and ploughs up
and folds over its burdens and the underlying rocks into all sorts of fautastic shapes,
so that distance from surface is no indication of age. Of the six implements here
described three are uniformly very much altered ; two, which are of a different
material, do not show such extensive signs of alteration, but this may be due to their
being composed of varieties of material less subject to alteration than the others.

Description of the Implements. — No. 1 is a beautifully worked adze measuring
214 ram. iu length, 58 mm. at the widest end, subtending the slightly curved cutting
edge, and 35 mm. at the base. The dorsal line is practically straight to within about
30 mm. of the butt, aud only curves very slightly at the point, not gaining 3 mm. iu the
whole length. In section this face is couvex throughout, flattening from base to cutting
edge. The other face is flat for about a fourth of its length from the butt, when it
becomes slightly concave, the latter feature increasing rapidly as it nears the point,
where the curve of its concavity is about equal to that of its cutting edge. The latter is
still perfectly sharp. The greater part of the chipping on the dorsal face has been
polished out ; the degree of polish attained is rather high considering the nature of the
material. Although it was rubbed down with a grit capable of leaving small close-set
scratches behind, the finishing must have been effected with something as fine as rotten-
stone, which did not leave the slightest trace of a scratch behind. The rubbing was
effected by strokes directed from the base to the point, and usually inclined from the
right to the left at about 30 degrees, the angle increasing slightly with the convexity of
the outline ; the left edge being also worked with the implement in the same position aud
not turned round in the process. If the implement were worked from base to point it is
practically right-handed, if from point to base (which is improbable) it was left-handed.
There are, however, a few indications of ambidexterity. The colour of this implement

[ 145 ]

Ho. 95.] MAN. (1904.

varies from light to darkish drab. Although a good homogeneous working material,
breaking with a fairly good couchoidal fracture, it does not show the conchoidal ripplings
so familiar in good flint and obsidian ; but this latter is, of course, more dependent upon
the method of working. From its fine granular or cryptograuular structure it appears
to be an altered silicified fine mud-stone, which at the time of working was almost
black.

No. 2 is a short adze 96 mm. long, triangular in section, with a sharp high dorsal
ridge. The lateral edges are nearly parallel, the base being 35 mm. and the point
39 mm. wide. The uuderface is practically flat, and wholly polished, the^strire running
in the same two directions as in No. 1. The two dorsal sides are unpolished, and show
a great deal of labour, the fracture being apparently more hackley than in No. 1 : this,
however, may be partly due to the high angle at which adjacent sides were worked.
The curved cutting edge is symmetrically formed parallel to the base in a rounded
sweep, and, except at the ridge, it is entirely well-polished with few working stria?, and
these at a very slight angle. There are other thickly set stria? at the flat underside,
which post-date the polishing undoubtedly due to ice action. This specimen shows
distinct signs of water wear, and the powerful force which broke this implement off at
its base must have post-dated its making, although not by long. The colour of this
specimen is a little more brown than No. 1, and a recent fracture shows that it possesses
quite a hackley fracture, and a colour as black as basalt. It is in all probability the
same material as No. 1.

No. 3. This is a chisel with a delicate ripple flaking, which calls to mind that of
the very best Danish or Kgjptiau work. It is 105 mm. long, uarrowing towards the
base, which is 24 mm. wide ; the cutting edge is almost straight. Its faces are equally
curved, the greatest symmetry attaining all through, the thickness relative to width
never exceeding 1: 3. The cutting edge is produced by grinding and polishing in a most
even, symmetrical, bi-facial manner. Vestiges of the stria* show the same angular direc-
tions in working as in the preceding, but are almost wholly left to right. The material in
this implement is much more altered thnn in the other two, and is now of a yellowish
drab in colour. Although it has a rather better fracture than the other two, I have no
doubt it is made of the same kind of material, and though it shows a more decided
ripple-fracture, the latter may be due largely to mode of working, and the angular licence
the operator had when working on two sides at so small an angle. Also in the former
two, the work was probably the result of free-struck blows, as is the larger work of this
specimen, but in the latter the finer secondary work may be the result of a pressure from
a bone or other hard substance,

No. 4 is a little implement of perfect symmetry, 75 mm. loug and 20 mm. in width,
and 8 mm. thick in its widest part near the centre, from which it sweeps gracefully but
finally, somewhat obtusely, towards either end. Owing to the unavoidable conditions of
working, one face is a trifle more convex than the other, producing a low dorsal ridge,
although in section at any part it is a perfect curve. This is a most perfect piece of
ripple flaking, where the delicate hollows of the flakings, from both edges, not only meet
in the centre, but, in their journey over the implement, describe curves which result iu
perfect bi-lateral symmetry all through the implement. The more convex face is worked
entirely with the same hand, and the flakings are uniformly at an angle of about 45 degrees
with the edge at each pit of percussion, so that in going up the first side from point to
poiut the direction of the flakes alter through 180 degrees, and continuing round make a
hcrriug-bone ridging at a point which changes with the shape of the edge until the
flake-ridges from both edges coincide, making it appear as if separate flakes extended
from edge to edge in a curve, in a manner often exhibited b}* the fiue Dauish knives
anil some Yorkshire arrowheads. If this implement were worked with the right hand the
working was pointed inward ; if left hand they were pointed outward. On the other face

t 146 ]

1904.] MAN. [No. 95.

this angular working is just as uuiformly preserved, but by the non-alternation of the
ridges at the points the herring-boning does not obtain, the flakings appear to run from
edge to edge. The material of which this little implement is made is very interesting ;
in colour it is nearly black, except when seen in thin sections at the cutting edge all
round, when it presents a corneous translucency, with grains and clouds of probably
Mn Oj, from which one might be disposed to regard it as an impure chalcedony.

No. 5. This implement differs as much from the others as does the last. It is a pure
laurel-leaf spear head, 160 mm. in length, 35 mm. at its widest part, and 8 mm. in thickness
at its thickest. The butt is nicely rounded, the point finely though not acutely sharp, and,
considering the nature of the material, is very fiuely worked, being perfectly symmetrical
in every plane, without flake-ridge prominences. In colour and general appearance it
closely resembles the reddish and reddish-grey Cherbourg quartzites. The surface is
sufficiently altered to obliterate the details of the physical structure of the material, but
an accidental chip-fracture reveals that it is not, however, a chemical quartzite with
rounded grains in a copious silica matrix. The quartz particles although showing no
signs of crystalline outline are quite crystalliue and colourless, and the interstitial silica
forms a delicate mossy subordinate network lighter in colour, and probably more colloid
in state though by no means eutiFely so.

No. 6 add 8 yet to the diversity ! For some time I suspected that this was a
specimen of an English flint core, from which parallel flakes had been struck, and which
had subsequently been bleached and stained ; closer examination reveals the fact that it
is really worked from an agate and might have been either a chalcedouvx or sardonyx
before alteration, the bands of crystalline silica producing but little effect upon the
working. One side is quite flat, and all the flakes converging to a point make it a half-
round in section. Although we usually speak of these as " cores/' the fact that I have
found these pointed wedges still in situ in partially split bones shows they really were
employed for the purpose of splitting bones, either for their contained luscious grease, or
for the manufacture of bone tools. I have therefore no hesitation in regarding this tool
as a bone-splitter.

The interest in these beautiful examples of stone working lies, firstly, in the high
latitudes in which they were found, being above 70° W. lat. ; secondly, in the diversity
of their types ; and to these might be added the fact, that in the insterstices of the
incipient flakings, which always occur in silicious implements, deposits of gold have been
found, which the geologist would probably consider to point to a long embedment in
some river deposit, while to the theoretical mineralogist it would be an invaluable
argument for the aqueous origin for at least some of the precious metal. Bones of the
large animals, probably the extinct forms, also occur in these deposits, but how many
times they may have been moved it is impossible to say. The altered condition of the
various materials, and in all probability the depositing of the gold in the cracks, certainly
point to a good age, but its extent we cannot tell. Whence came these tools of types
and materials so different aud in those high uortheru latitudes ? With one exception
they show no sign of river action, and not very much of ice action. When we have
more minute details of the materials of which implements are made that are found in
various parts of the globe, together with their types and forms and methods of working,
and when the mineralogists and penologists of the whole world will be so good as to
describe all the varieties of silica and its allied rocks, we shall be in a better position to
decide a question like this. For the last twenty-five years I have been trying to
collect these latter, and although 1 have got many thousands of specimens I am con
tiuually fiudiug new varieties. If we can localise a large portion of these it may be as
useful as fixing the original home of jade, and we may then know more about the
peregrinations of the nomads of prehistoric time«. W. J. LEWIS ABBOTT.

r 147 i

Nos. 96-97.]

MAN.

[1904.

Easter Island. St. George Gray.

Another Type of "Domestic Idol" from Easter Island. By H. St. QQ

George Gray. OQ

Very shortly after reading Mr. Edge-Partington's article, No. 46 in Man, 1904, on
a rare type of " domestic idol " from Easter Island, I attended a small Taunton sale of
miscellaneous second-hand furniture, and was fortunate in purchasing, at a very small
price, the object of which the accompanying is an illustration. It is cnrved from the
usual dark mahogauy-coloured wood out of which the Easter Island " idols " are, I
believe, generally made (probably a species of mimosa), and represents an animal which
is quite unusual (as far as ray experience goes) for the particular purpose for which it
was carved. The general character of the carving, the curve the " idol " takes, the
strong definition of the back-bone, the fact that the fore legs are drawn up with
the feet placed together at the base of the lower jaw, the representation of the ribs,

and the fan-like termination of the vertebral column,
are all typical of the art of ihe Easter Islanders displayed
in these figures.

In this specimen there is only one lateral perforation
near the shoulders for suspension. The general character
of the head suggests a rat, or at any rate a repre
seutative of the rodent family. The eyes, instead of
being iulaid, are represented by bosses of the wood in
high relief ; the ears are also prominently raised. The
fore feet are conjoined and arc no doubt intended to
overlap, as an uneven number of toes (viz., seveu) are
represented. The ribs take the usual chevron design
between the fore-legs.

Knots in the wood have caused defects at the end
of the back-bone. No tail is represented, and the fau-
like termination is of somewhat lozenge-shaped form.
Another unusual feature in this figure is that the hind-
legs, which are abnormally small as compared with the
fore-legs, are drawn up, the feet being represented as
short stumps turned inward on the lower side of the
" idol."

The base of the stump ou which the animal is carved

has been sawn off obliquely, and the original length of

the object is therefore unobtainable. Irregular striations

are observable in most parts of the figure, and it is quite

probable that it was carved with obsidian implements.

The photograph is three-tenths scale, linear.

If my memory serves me rightly there are two of these Easter Islaud idols in the

Pitt-Rivers Museum at Famham, N. Dorset ; one in the form of a crocodile, and the

other representing a fish. H. ST. GEORGE GRAY.

Scotland, Annandale.

A Modern Instance of Trial by Ordeal in Scotland. By Nelson q^
Anna?idale, B.A. Indian Museum, Calcutta. Uf

The specimen on which the following notes are based was presented by an Edinburgh
lady to the Pitt-Rivers Museum in 1898. It is a piece of thin, opaque, animal membrane
about 3 J inches long, roughly cutout into the shape .of a fish. On one side the eye,
gill-cover, fins, &c, are indicated in faded ink, which was probably black, while certaiu
outlines are emphasized in red. Under the influence of heat and moisture the membrane

[ 1« ]

1904.] MAN. [Nos. 97-98.

mirls up in such a way that the head and the tail of the fish come together, and the
whole is liable to roll off any surface not absolutely steady. This object is known to
have been in existence in the donor's family at Dunfermline over eighty years ago. It
was employed by her father at that date to detect the perpetrator of any mischief among
his children. If anything was broken or mislaid, aud the culprit refused to confess, the
children were solemnly called together and ordered to hold out their right hands. The
fish was then placed ou each extended hand in turn. They believed that it would roll
off that of the guilty person. At a later date one of the donor's servants consulted her
as to her (the servant's) marriage with a man of whose character she was not sure. It
was suggested that the " fisheeu," as the specimen in question was called in the family,
should decide. When placed on the servant's hand it contracted so violently that it was
torn. In spite of this she married the man, who treated her very badly. The persistence
of trial by ordeal, even in a manner so little serious, is worthy of record, for it took place
in a highly-cultured family which prided itself on keeping up old customs. It is interest-
ing, because this instance of the use of a fish of the kind cannot have been unique ;
for similar objects, but made of some artificial substance, are, or were, within the last ten
years, used by facetious or credulous persons in foretelling the future. I have myself
seen them in Edinburgh employed in this way as advertisements for a fishmonger.
Whether the exact form they took had auy magical significance is not a question which
can be answered without full investigation of their use and distribution. Further
information on these points would be valuable. NELSON ANNAN DALE.

REVIEWS.
Torres Straits. Haddon : Rivers.

Reports of the Cambridge Anthropological Expedition to Torres Straits, qq
Vol. V. Sociology, Magic and Religion of the Western Islanders. Cambridge : 90
University Press, 1904. 29 X 22 cm. Price 25*.

Although numbered fifth in the scheme of publication of the Reports of the
Cambridge Expedition to Torres Straits, this is the first complete volume to be issued.
The contributors to the volume are Dr. Haddon, Dr. Rivers, Mr. Seligmanu, and the
late Mr. Anthony Wilkin, whose premature death at Cairo is deplored, and to whom an
appropriate tribute of sorrow is paid, by Dr. Haddon in the preface. Of these
Dr. Haddon aud Dr. Rivers are responsible for most of the chapters. It may at once
be said that alike in form and in substance the volume is worthy of the best traditions
of the university, and is a model for future anthropological explorers.

The islands of Torres Straits are ethuologically divided into two distinct groups.
The western group, with which the t present volume deals lies directly between Queens-
land and New Guinea, and embraces all the larger islands. The eastern group is more
scattered. Its constituent islands lie to the south- east of New Guinea, and are to some
extent connected with the western group by a series of small, low-lying, sparsely-
inhabited islands, whose natives, ethnologically belonging rather to the latter group,
formed a medium of communication between them. The eastern group is reserved for
volume VI.

Although the inhabitants of these islands are few in number, and for the last
twenty years have been undergoing not merely contamination but change of culture by
contact with missionaries, traders, and European administration, they form an importaut
subject of ethnological inquiry, because they stand geographically between the popula-
tions of Papua and Australia. A thorough investigation, such as that undertaken by
the Cambridge Expedition, was desirable in the hope that it might throw some light
upon difficult problems of racial origin and admixture and cultural influence, such as
continually confront anthropologists, and are found especially perplexing in the adjacent

[ "9 ]

No. 98.] MAN. [1904,

areas of New Guinea, Australia, and the scattered islands of the South Sea. Assuming
that the blackfellows of Australia are an immigrant race, the direction and manner of
their immigration are yet unknown, though inquiries on the Australian continent seem
to point to the north or north-west as the place of their entrance. One object, therefore,
of the expedition was to ascertain whether any mixture of Papuans and Australians had
taken place in the islands, or any trace of the migration could be found there or on the
adjacent coasts of New Guinea. The result has been to determine the islanders as a
definitely Papuan people, and to negative any traces of the Australian migration.

Practically the only indication of Australian influence discovered was contained in
the saga of Kwoiam, the warrior-hero of Mabuiag. He is said to have come with his
mother and her brothers from Muri off the coast of Cape York Peninsula. His fame
has spread over all the western group of islands. He is credited with mental and
physical characteristics corresponding to those of the Queens lauders. Dr. Haddou
considers that the evidence points to his having been a veritable man, a native of North
Queensland. It is consonant with this that, though so mighty a hero, none of the
families of Mabuiag, or indeed any other of the islands, claim kindred with him. He
was purely a fighter, and there seems no legend of union, even of the most temporary
kind, as there is in the case of other heroes, with any of the women. On the other hand,
the cairn said to have been erected over his body has, since the expedition returned,
been opened, but no remains of any kind have been found within. Moreover, all the
relics attributed to him, with the exception of some shell-trumpets, which might have
belonged to anybody, and a rough wall of stones about 2 feet high, said to mark the site
cf his house, are natural objects — boulders, rocks, a rivulet, aud so forth. There were,
indeed, other relics of him a few years ago, but they were deliberately burnt at the
instigation of a Christian teacher from Lifu, during the temporary absence of Dr. Mac-
far la ue, the L.M.S. missionary. These might conceivably have supplied some data
for determining the question of Kwoiam's objective existence and origin. Such as they
may have been, however, they have perished.

What is certain is much more interesting and important than this difficult problem.
It is that the totemic system at the time of the missionary invasion was breakiug
down, and that upon its ruins a hero-cult was rising, which not improbably might in
the course of time have developed into the worship of divine beings. The evidence
goes to show that at no distant date (the authors think, with some probability, about
100 years ago) on all the islands kinship was reckoned in the female line, and the
population was divided among a number of totems. In Mabuiag the clans were again
arranged in two divisions, the children of the Great, and of the Little, Totem, an
arrangement which was most likely primitive. A similar division also existed on the
islands of Tutu and Yam. The totems were usually animals. Out of thirty-six totems
recorded only two were plants, two were stones, and one a star, all the rest were animals.
But from a period as far back as oral records of the genealogies go, descent had been
reckoned in the male line. The change seems to have resulted in a weakeniug of the
social organization. On the island of Mabuiag at all events considerable confusion was
evideut in the native miuds concerning their rules of descent ; and marriage had begun
to be regulated more by kinship than by clanship. A system of subsidiary totems had
sprung up, perhaps by segmentation of the original clans. There is certainly evidence
of the localisation of the totem-clans.

On the religious sids of totemism corresponding changes had taken place. The
hero, Kwoiam, had become a totem in the Prince of Wales group of islands. Though
iu Mabuiag he was not regarded as a totem, the honorific title of Adi was applied to
him, and his two magical crescents were called augud (totem) and .were assigned
respectively to the two divisions of the clans. It is difficult to see why the appellation
of augud should have been given to these two objects, unless it was because the natives

[ 150 ]

1904.] MAN. [No. 98.

had uo other expression conveying the idea of sacredness. Probably, as the authors
put it, they did not know what else to call them. In any case it is easy to see that the
mere fact of applying such a term to these two specific material objects must in time
have influenced the meaning of the word and aided the development of their religious
ideas. The most striking evidence of the evolution of totemism into a true cult,
however, was found on the island of Yam, where two regular shrines (now destroyed)
existed. They were dedicated to the two heroes, Maiau and Sigai, respectively, and
contained their effigies under the forms of a crocodile and a hammer-headed shark. In
fact, these two auimals were the totems of the two groups of clans on the islands of Tutu
and Yam. Unfortunately, Dr. Haddon was unable to obtain any definite information
«-oncerning the ceremonies performed at the shrines. But, as he says, " From the meagre
44 evidence available it is clear that totemism was undergoing an interesting development
' 4 in Yam. . . . The unique features of the totem cult of Yam were the represen-
44 tation (and localisation) of the augud iu a definite image, each of which was lodged
* 4 in its own house, and the presence of a stone beneath each effigy in which resided
u the life of the augud. . . . The effigy is further associated with a hero. The
44 two heroes apparently assisted the followers mainly in fighting, and, therefore, as in
4fc the case of the relation of the Mabuiag men to Kwoiam, the hero-cult was in reality
4k a war-cult." Well may he observe, that "This is so important a development of
44 totemism as practically to place it beyond the realm of true totemism ! "* It is
relevant *o observe that the Wollunqua totem of the Warramunga, oue of the northern
tribes of Central Australia, presents features analogous to those of Maiau and Sigai.
The Wollunqua is a single mythical animal, still surviving from the Alcheringa, residing
at a certain definite spot, and the object of ceremonies of deep religious import. The
late M. Marillier, in his powerful articles on totemism published iu the Revue de VHistoire
des Religions, expressed the opinion that iu the evolution of religion totemism was a
terminus ad quern and never a terminus a quo. Had his valuable life been spared
until to-day, I cannot help thinkiug that he would, in the light of these cases, have
revised that judgement.

Thus, from the point of view of the history of religion, this volume ranks as amoug
the most importaut of recent records of research. Perhaps equally important iu another
direction is the study of the genealogies by Dr. Rivers. Fellows of the Institute will
recall his admirable paper in the thirtieth volume of the Journal on the use of
genealogies iu the collection of vital and social statistics. In the volume now under
review the genealogies recovered from the memories of the people of Mabuiag, Tutu,
and Muralug are given, their substantial accuracy is shown, and they are applied for
the purpose of determining a number of questions relating to social organisation and
customs. There can be no question that science owes a debt of gratitude to the penetration
and painstaking accuracy of Dr. Rivers, who first perceived the value of the genealogies
for such investigations, and applied himself to their collection and elucidation. An
implement of much promise has thus been forged for future investigators of savage life.
It is to be hoped that it will be speedily applied elsewhere.

Space is limited, but before closing this very inadequate notice I should like to
express, my sense of the great interest attaching to almost every part of the volume. In
addition to the sections on totemism, magic and religion, and on the genealogies and
kinship, it coutains a collection of folk-tales, many of them revised and improved from
the versions collected on Dr. Haddon's original vieit in 1888, and chapters on birth and
puberty customs, initiation, courtship and marriage, the marriage-regulations, funeral
ceremonies, public life and morals, laud-teuure and inheritance, trade and warfare,

* Wc may doubt whether such a development is to be dated from a* recent a period as a himdred
years ago. If it be in any organic relation to the change of descent referred to above, as seems Dot
improbable, the author's opinion as to the date of that change iray require reconsideration.

[ 151 ]

Nqs. 98-99.] MAN. [1904.

including sagas of recent wars ; and Dr. Haddon writes a general introduction. He
and his colleagues are to be heartily congratulated on the success which has attended
their collaboration in the present volume as well as in the field-work. The plates and
numerous figures in the text from sketches and photographs really do illustrate the
work, and some of them are of considerable beauty. Not the least amusiug aud
interesting are from sketches by natives. E. S. II.

Philippine Islands. Landor.

The Gems of the East : Sixteen Thousand Miles of Research Travel among f%f%
Wild and Tame Tribes of Enchanting Islands. By A. Henry Savage Landor. %J\3
Loudon : Macniillan, 1904. Two volumes. 328 and 439 pp., with illustrations and map.
23 x 15 cm. Price 30s.

In these volumes Mr. Landor gives an account of a series of journeys round and
about* the islands of the Philippine Group, with numerous excursions on the* smaller
islands and longer journeys in Luzon aud across unexplored territory in Mindanao. The
author's route involved much crossing andrecrossing of the sea and caunot be very easily
followed on the map. His rate of travel was rapid, 16,000 miles being traversed in
250 days. For tropical travelling on foot the journey across Negros Island, a distance
of 75 miles, must be a record, as it was performed in 36 hours, including halts which
together occupied six hours.

Although the country was so quickly passed over, the book is full of geographical
matter, aud details, such as the description of islands, heights of mountains, depths of
channels, and even collections of charts, are given with the precision of a geographical
encyclopaedia. There are also some historical chapters ; these deal with the American
negotiations for a treaty with the Sulus, and with the siege and capture of Forts Bacolod
and Calahui from the Malauaos in Eastern Mindanao.

Very little is said about the fauua of the islands. Trees and woods are named in
great detail, but the reader is bewildered by the native words given without explanation.
The following paragraph is a sample of the author's descriptions (Vol. ii., p. 38) : —
44 The province (i.e., Zamboango) is thickly wooded — especially on the mountains — narra,
44 molave, ipil, teca, tindalao, galantas and yacal of excellent quality, as well as batilinan,
" cubi, amugois, guijo, agutud y panaobalao, lumbayao, lauaan, pugatpat, malacayua,
44 bacanan, and tagal, of various degrees of goodness all grow here. Abundant aud
44 delicious fruit of all tropical kinds is obtainable." A few of these words are explained
elsewhere, but as here given convey few ideas to the reader as they do not occur in the
index, and must either be retained in the memory when first met with, or be hunted for
throughout the hook.

The author has endeavoured to justify his sub-title : " Sixteen Thousaud Miles of
44 Research Travel among Wild and Tame Tribes," by giving very full descriptions of
the various people visited. These accounts will be found of interest by the readers
of Man, although they are in many respects disappointing. More than forty tribes are
described. The author's plan is to give first a general description of the physical features
of the tribe, hair, akin, &c, aud then au anthropometric table containing the fojlowing :
44 Height, span, arm (hand, maximum length of fingers, thumbs) ; head (vertical
44 maximum length, horizontal maximum length from forehead to back of head, width
44 of forehead at temples, height of forehead, bizygomatic breadth, maximum breadth of
44 lower jaw, uasal height, nasal breadth at nostrils, orbital horizontal breadth, width
44 between the eyes, breadth of mouth, length of upper lip from mouth aperture to base
44 of nose, lower lip and chin from mouth aperture to under chin, length of ears "). In
some cases additional measurements are given, in some less. There are also diagrams of
the hair sections of 20 tribes, and of the facial angles of 49 varieties. It will be

[ 152 ]

1904.] MAN. [No. 99.

noticed that the important measurement of the maximum . head-breadth was not taken
by the author, except in one case (that of the Linapakan Tagbanouas) and thus the
cranial indices cannot be calculated. This is a serious defect in the tables, and it is
also to be noted that the number of individuals measured is not stated.

The differences found in the physical appearance of the tribes were extreme. The
real Negritos were apparently not visited, but certain tribes (as, e.g., the Tagbanouas of
the Calamianes, the Cagavans, and the Siraonor Islanders) are said to be of Negroid type.
Other natives are variously designated as "Indonesian," "Malay type," "Malay-
Negroid," or as having 4; Papuan " or " Australoid " characteristics, but all these terms
are somewhat indefinitely used. The tallest people measured were the Cuvonos of Cuyo
Island, between Panay aud Palawan, with a stature of 1*682 metres (5 ft. 6| in.), and the
shortest the Bayos of Bontoc Province, North Luzon, who were (according to the table)
l'41o metres (4 ft. 7^ iu.), but in the text the majority are said to have been well under
4 ft. in height.

In the previously unexplored region of Mindanao the author found a white tribe, the
Mansakas, living in tree houses. These had "Papuan" features, but skins of "the
" ivory white of the Latin races." Some of the Igorrotes of North Luzon were also
found by the author to resemble the Ainu in physical appearance and hair, and he
considers them to be closely allied. Among the Igorrotes, aud also in Mindauao, he found
ornaments suggesting the inaos of the Ainu.

There are many details of customs and arts which will be found of interest, and
there are some good descriptions of ornaments, weapons, and implements. Some of the
customs appear to be ideutical with those of Borneo, as, e.g., the forge, the method of »
preparing sago, the taking of a child's name by the father with the prefix ama (tama in
Borneo), the so-called medicine man, balian (with the same name in Borneo derived from
bait, a spirit), and the use of birds as omens. In Vol. I., Chap. VII., is an account of
native diseases and their remedies.

Chapter VIII. of the first volume is devoted to an account of the Cuyouo laugua^e
of Cuyo Island, and some notes on the Bagobo of Mindanao are given iu the second
volume. There are also some notes on the Philippine alphabets and an engraving of
that of Apurahuano in Palawau Island. In a short comparative table (twenty-five nouns
and numerals) in twenty of the lesser known languages of the Philippine and Sulu
Archipelagoes the author gives no indication as to the pronunciation of the words.
Such spellings, however, as bohoc, buquid, dogno, betquen, quemer, seguey, show a
Spanish orthography. Assuming that the list3 are original (no authorities for them are
quoted) it seems strange that an Englishman should have used the cumbrous Spanish
orthography when a simpler scientific spelling might have been used. The only list of
words in these lesser known languages which is complete is the Malay (!!), but the
words omitted by the author in the Bagobo, Bicol, Uocauo, Sulu, Tiruray, and Visayan,
<'ould have been easily supplied from the existing vocabularies in those languages. On
page 31.5 of Vol. II. the author states that he sat up all night collecting a vocabulary
of the Manguianc language. As only seventeen words and the numerals are given in
the comparative vocabulary, and the language is almost unknown, it is to be hoped that
the complete list will be elsewhere published.

None of the vocabularies show very decided differences, and iu all of them there are
many r-ognate words. The author states with regard to them that, " With the exception
" of the Negrito language and some of the tongues spoken by the savage tribes of
" Central Mindanao, aud one or two tribes in Luzon, most of the lauguages spoken in
" the Philippines are of Malayan origin." There is no evidence of a Negrito language
in the author's vocabularies. Lists of words which have been obtained in the languages
of the Negrito tribes have been shown by Kern in Meyer's work on the Philippines
(Dresden, 1893) to be essentially the same as those of other Philippine natives. Judging

[ 153 ]

Nos. 99-101.] MAN. [1904.

from Mr. Landor's vocabularies tho differences between the languages be gives are not
so great as those found between different Borneo tribes in Sarawak.

There are many illustrations of very varying merit. Some are very crude. A few-
more photographs of implements, weapons, and processes would have been welcome.

The book may be commended as adding to our general knowledge of the inhabitants
of the Philippines, and one cannot but admire the author's determination to see and
record as much as possible during his visit. His rapid transit, however, has had an
adverse influence on his scientific results. SIDNEY H. RAY.

Tibet. Sarat Chandra Das.

A Tibetan- English Dictionary with Sanskrit Synonyms. By Sarat Chandra 4 Aft
Das. Revised and edited by Graham Sandberg and A. William Heyde. Calcutta, IUU
1902. 27 x 23 cm. Price 48s. or 32 rupees.

Sarat Chandra Das, the well-known author of A Journey to Lhasa and Central
Tibet, enjoyed unique opportunities during his two visits to Lhasa of associating with
the literati of the Tibetan monasteries, the chief living authorities on the Tibetan
language and literature. To this cause is due what may be called the characteristic
feature of this dictionary — the mass of information here recorded concerning the more
modern and more characteristically Tibetan literature, which dates only from the
establishment of the Dalai Lama's sovereignty over the whole of Tibet at the beginning
of the eighteenth century a.d. Scholars in Europe have concerned themselves hitherto
chiefly with the most ancient literature, which begins in the seventh century a.d. and
which consists entirely of translations from the Sanskrit. For such students the
Sanskrit synonyms of Tibetan religious and philosophical terms, which are regularly
given in the present dictionary on the authority of Buddhist lexicons, will indeed be
most useful ; but it is in its grasp of the later and more independent literature, the
enormous extent and variety of which can as yet only be imperfectly realised, that its
chief merit lies. There can be no doubt that the appearance of this dictionary marks a
very real advance in Tibetan lexicography, and it is fortunate that it appears at a time
when we are certainly on the eve of the opening up to Western eyes of much that has
hitherto remained hidden in the literature of Tibet. E. J. R.

Stone Age. Giglioli.

Materiali per lo Studio delta u Etd delta Pietra " dai tempi preistorici alV 4fM
cpoca attuate : Origine e sviluppo delta mia collezione. By Enrico Hillyer IU I
Giglioli. Fireoze, Laudi, 1901. With numerous illustrations in the text : pp. 248,
26 X 18 cm.

By a strange series of accideuts, part of the collections made by Captaiu Cook on
his third voyage found their way into the Museum of Natural History at Florence, and
fell, in due time, for re-arrangement iuto the hands of a young and ardent naturalist, the
son of the then Professor of Anthropology at Pisa. A journey of research round the
world in the Magenta from 1865 to 1868, widened and deepeued the interest thus excited
accidentally, and from the early days of the Italian Society for Anthropology and
Ethnology onwards the name of Enrico Giglioli has held a high place in the regard of
his colleagues — and not in Italy alone — as an active and successful collector, and as an
anthropologist of wide and varied distinction.

The volume under review is a running commentary on the vast collection of stone
implements which for some twenty years Professor Giglioli has devoted his leisure to
amass, and at the same time a comprehensive discussion of the numerous problems which
are presented by Stone Age culture in all areas and ages. The descriptions are arranged
in geographical order, beginning with a remarkable series of the stone utensils of quite
modem date, which remain still in use iu various parts of Europe, and ending with the

[ 154 ]

1904.] MAN. [Pfos. 101-103.

Yahgans and other primitive peoples of South America, who are really almost as far
from the beginning of a true " Stone Age " in the one directiou, as we ourselves are
from the close of it in the other.

In concluding his survey of one of the most remarkable private collections of ethno-
graphical material in existence, the author expresses emphatically, and in terms with
which his many friends and colleagues will most sincerely agree, his strong desire that
this great series, with the library, photographs, and other apparatus which have growu
up round it, may find its way eventually into some public museum, where it may be
tended and increased with some such care as its originator has bestowed upon it hitherto.

J. L. M.

Archaeology. Thieullen.

SocietS (T Emulation d' Abbeville: Hommage cl Boucher de Perthes. Par 4(\f\
A. Thieullen. Paris : Imprimerie Larousse, 1904. IU£

Under this title M. Thieullen extracts from the proceedings of the Societe d'Emula-
tion d' Abbeville an account of a meeting at which he exhibited a number of fliuts of
palaeolithic age, bearing fractures which bad, in his opinion, been made intentionally, and
had converted them into useful or ornamental objects. One, of which he gives a full-
size illustration, has some resemblance to a bird ; another mav, by giving a sufficiently
loose rein to the imagination, be supposed to represent a bison, or some other animal
grazing. The precise connection of M. Boucher de Perthes with this matter appears
to be that he was not well received by the " official science " of his day, and that
M. Thieullen fares no better at the present time ; this is not surprising, for the " official
schools " seldom possess any original ideas of their own, and are, as a rule, unsympathetic
and oppressive towards originality in others ; there are, of course, exceptions to the rule,
and any " official v reading this paragraph is requested to consider himself oue of the
exceptions. A. L. L.

PROCEEDINGS OP SOCIETIES.
Proceedings. British Association.

Anthropology at the British Association : Cambridge Meeting, August IflQ
\lth to 24th, 1904. lUO

The Anthropological Section of the British Association met this year, from
August 18th to 24th, in St. Andrew's School, Cambridge. The papers were well up
to the usual standard and were rather more numerous than usual ; consequently, a sub-
section for Physical Anthropology met on the Monday morning, August 22, at the
Zoological Lecture Room, under the presidency of Professor A. Macalister, F.R.S. On
Tuesday morning, August 23rd, the section met in the New Theatre.

The address of the Presideut, Mr. Henry Balfour, dealt with the evolution of the
material arts, with especial reference to the work of the late General Pitt-Rivers. It
will be found in The Times of August 20, in Nature, and in the Report of the British
Association (Cambridge), 1904.

Iu the summary which follows, the papers are classified according to subjects, and the
final destination of each, so far as it is known at present, is indicated in square brackets.

PHYSICAL ANTHROPOLOGY.

Anthropometric Investigation in Great Britain and Ireland. (Report.) [Rep
Brit. Assoc.']

Professor D. J. Cunningham, M.D., F.R.S., Professor of Anatomy in the
University of Edinburgh.— The Alleged Physical Deterioration of the People. — This

[ 155 1

No. 103.] MAN. [1904.

paper pointed out the bearing of anthropological work on the solution of problems which
are engaging the attention of statesmen, and particularly on the question of the alleged
deterioration of the national physique. The author described the sources of evidence
at present available for dealing with this question, namely : (a) recruiting statistics ; (6)
anthropometric statistics ; and compared the value to be attached to each of them. He
discussed the influence of environment on racial physique, and examined the question
whether the influence of environment is transmitted to offspring. This question he was
inclined to answer in the negative, pointing out that each race has a physical mean or
average, which it tends to retain, and to which individuals tend to revert whenever
adverse influences are removed. He explaiued in detail the significance of the observed
degeneration of the teeth, and discussed the effects of fashionable deformation of the
waist and the feet by the use of unsuitable clothing. Evolutionary changes are taking
place slowly in the structure of man, and must not be left out of account in the estimate
of physical degeneration. Special note is to be taken meanwhile of the effect* of higher
education of women, and its effect on the female pelvis in its relation to child-bearing.
The conclusions of the British Association's Report on this matter in 1883 are shown to
need revision.

Dr. Cunningham concluded by summarising the recommendations of the Report of
the Inter-departmental Committee on Physical Degeueratiou iu so far as they concern
his proposals for a general anthropometric survey of the people of this couutry.

J. Gray. — On the Utility of an Anthropometric Survey,

The author referred to the recommendations of the Inter-departmental Committee
on Physical Deterioration and strongly urged the advisibility of an anthropometric
survey being started immediately.

F. C. SnRUBSALL, M.D. — A Comparison of the Physical Characters of Hospital
Patients with those of Healthy Individuals from the same Areas, with Suggestions as
to the Influence of Selection by Disease on the Constitution of City Pop ulations.

The following is a summary of the discussion which followed the reading of these
papers.

The Right Hon. A. J. Balfour, M.P., D.C.L., F.R.S. (President of the
Association), observed that a distinction must be drawn between causes producing
temporary effects and those tending to produce permanent effects. He was of opiuion
that, since food and education were better, the race ought to be improving. The evil of
overcrowded habitations was as prevalent in the couutry as in the town, and he suggest « d
that the fact that development was apparently not affected in the case of those living in
the country might be due to some difference in the chemical constituents of the air. He
also suggested that the increased facilities for education adversely affected the race,
since a man who raised himself from the lower ranks of life, married later in life
than he would otherwise have done. He also felt that the migration of the more
energetic part of our rural population to the towns must have a deleterious effect,
since it left the burden of continuing the race to the loss energetic remnant of the rural
population.

Sir John Gorst, M.P., F.R.S., drew atteution to the prevalence of improvident
marriages among the lower classes, and expressed the fear that the race was now being
propagated in undue proportion by the lowest portion of the community. He suggested
as a remedy the prevention by the State of juvenile marriages. He also drew attention
to the necessity of good feeding, and urged that parents should be compelled to feed
their childreu properly, and suggested that school children should be fed by the local
authority.

Professor Ridolfo Livi congratulated the commissioners on their far-reaching
scheme. He described tb6 Italian survey of 300,000 recruits, and pointed out that the

[ 156 1

1904.] MAN. [No. 103.

statistics of a conscript army are free from the disadvantages which attend those of a
voluntary army ; but admitted the great value of the British army statistics in certain
special directions. He discussed the limits of a survey of the population and the
problems whwh it may hope to solve. He also debated the question of physical
deterioration and pointed out that liability to disease decreases as prosperity or know-
ledge increase ; giving instances as to stature, &c, from the Italian military survey.
He also remarked that in England the extremes of social conditions are much less marked
than elsewhere.

Mr. E. W Bra brook was of opinion that the survey would have to be uniform and
made by legislation, and mentioned that good work was already beiug done in several
schools.

Major McCuiloch considered that all anthropometric measurements should be
taken on a uniform plan and under like conditions.

Professor A. Macalister urged the necessity for a large and complete series of
statistics, as otherwise they would be unsatisfactory and misleading.

Mrs. Watt-Smyth urged that in all schools simple measurements should be taken,
and that medical officers should be in attendance each morning to examine any children
who looked unfit for work.

Anthropometric Investigations among the Native Troops of the Egyptian Army.
{Report.) [Rep. Brit. Assoc]

G. Elliot Smith. — The Persistence in the Human Brain of certain Features
usually supposed to be Distinctive of Apes. — The study of a large series of simple
human brains belonging to various lowly (chiefly African) peoples has revealed the fact
that the human brain may retain many features that are commonly supposed to be
distinctive of the apes ; and it is especially in the occipital region of the cerebral
hemisphere that the supposed distinctively simian characters are most exactly reproduced,
due to the fact that the cortical area especially concerned with the reception of visual
impulses is as well developed in the anthropoid apes as in man. The form of this visual
area in the human brain is often greatly distorted, but, however much its shape in man
may differ from that of the apes, its structure is identical. The simian resemblance is
much more often retained in the left than in the right occipital region. The reason for
this is that the visual centre retracts towards the mesial surface to a distinctly greater
degree on the right than on the left side of most human brains. Although large
u Affenspalten " may occur in people of various races, they are rarely symmetrical in
the two hemispheres, except in the Negro races. In this, as well as in many other
features, the Negro brain is distinctly more pithecoid than the brains of any other people
known to the writer.

P. C. Laidlaw. — Some Varieties of the Os Calcis. — The varieties chosen from
the collection of bones in the Cambridge University Museum fell uuder six heads : —

(1) The variability of the processus trochlearis seems to show that it is not-
developed from a separate ossicle, as Professor Pfitzner suggested. (2) The external
plantar tubercle : its variations in man, its absence iu the anthropoids and its probable
development, the anatomy of the soft parts in man and the chimpanzee, show that it is
a structure developed for the more ready maintenance of the upright position. (3) Cal-
caneus secundarius of Gruber. (4) Os sustentaculi proprium. (5) The processus
trochlearis of Kyrtl and its variation seem to show that it is not necessarily pathological.
(6) Variations iu the facets met with in the bone : due to (a) ossicles ; (b) other
factors. The projection of the heel is more limited in Europeans than in the ancient
Egyptians, owing to backward extension of the fascia articularis posterior.

R. B. Seymour Sewell, B.A. — Some Variations in the Astragalus. — The bone.*
examined numbered upwards of 1,000, and were mainly of Egyptian origin.

[ 157 ]

No. 103.] MAN. [1904.

As regards the angles which the collum makes with the corpus, these specimens are
intermediate between the Europeans and the anthropoid apes. The adoption of certain
postures produces changes in the articular surfaces ; thus in squatting we have a forma-
tion of facets on the neck, and in the sartorial position we get changes in the facies
malleolaris medialis and a formation of an accessory facet, facies accessoria externa.

The process of e version of the foot has also caused structural changes in the bone,
certain specimens from Borneo being intermediate between the Egyptian and the
anthropoid apes.

Occasionally we find accessory facets present. The facies accessoria iuferior may
be fused with either the facet in front or behind, and in rare cases with both.

We occasionally find the middle aud posterior calcaneal facets fused directly, and
in rare cases the anterior calcaneal facet is absent. The os trigonum is very variable
both in size and shape ; usually it takes no part in the formation of the sulcus musculi
flexoris hallucis longi, but in very rare cases this groove may be formed cither partly or
entirely by this ossicle.

J. F. Tocher, F.I.C. — Recent Anthropometric Work in Scotland. — During the
present year a survey of the iumates of Scottish asylums has been carried out by the
author, the characters measured or noted being head-length, head-breadth, head-height
(from centre of auricular orifice to vertex), stature, shape of nose, and colour of hair and
eyes. Altogether 4,436 males and 3,951 females were measured. The distributions of
head-lengths, head -breadths, and head-heights are of Type IV of Pearson's series. The
means and standard deviations do not indicate any special differences from those of
published results elsewhere. The physical characters of 1,000 school children (including
500 Glasgow children measured by Mr. R. Tocher) have aleo been noted. In addition
to the ordinary measurements, the radius of curvature of the cornea and the visual acuity of
the children were determined. An analysis of these measurements will be published at
an early date. [Biomctrika. Henderson Trust of Edinburgh.']

C. S. Myers, M.l). — The Variability of Modern and Ancient Peoples. — \Journ.
Anthr. Inst, or Man, below.']

F. R. Coles and T. H. Bryce. — On an Interment of the Early Iron Age found at
Morcdun* near Edinburgh. — The present example, the first completely attested instance
of an interment associated with relics of the Early Iron Age in Scotland, was discovered
in August, 1903, at Moredun, near Edinburgh. The remains were contained in a cist,
4 feet long by 2 feet 3 inches wide, and 22 inches deep, covered by several flagstones of
varying size.

The evidence afforded by the associated relics would show that the interment can
scarcely be earlier than some time in the second century a.d. The osseous remains are
those of two individuals placed iu the doubled-up position, one above the other, with the
heads to opposite ends of the cists, but faces in the same direction. One was a young
adult, the other an adolescent of about twenty-one years of age.

The face measurements could uot be accurately taken, but the length-breadth index
was doubtless lepto-prosopic. The sutures were all patent, the set of teeth was com-
plete, and the crowns showed no attrition. The chief characters are the very full
rounded frontal region, the flatness of the vertex, the absence of sagittal ridge, aud the
rounding out of the sides. A comparison with the skulls from this district * shows that
in general character it agrees with the majority of more modern examples, and the
probability is that the type now prevailing in Midlothian was already established when
the interment took place.

R. G. Parsons. — Facial Expression.

* See Tram. Boy. Soc, Ed. xl„ part iii., No. 24.
[ 158 ]

1904.] MAN. [No. 103.

W. L. H. Duckworth, M.A. — Graphical Representations of Facial Types. —
The author reviewed the methods devised by Keaae, Petrie, Thomson, and Stratz, and
propose 1 to adopt the simile of a protoplasmic organism into processes corresponding to
the several morphological types.

W. L. H. Duckworth, M.A. — Note on the Brain of a Festal Gorilla. — The
interest of this case was concentrated in the appearances presented by the mesial aspects
of the left kt-im«phere. Two sulci were to be seen. The anterior one corresponded to
the "Bozenfurehe " of His, while the posterior one seemed to represent the calcarine or
possibly the paracalcarine element. The problem at stake was to discover whether
these sulci were natural or due to decomposition. The author, on the whole, was of
opinion that they should be regarded as artificial, although Professor Retzius' opinion
was that they were natural.

Professor A. Macalister, F.R.S. — Exhibition of Amorite Skulls. — The skulls
exhibited came from the excavations at Gezer, representing the ethnology of the third
and fourth strata. For comparison there were also exhibited some skulls, from the last
stratum, of Maccabeau Age.

J. Gray, B.Sc. — Anthropometric Identification : a Xew System of Classifying
the Records. — \Joum. Anthr. Inst, or Max.]

ETHNOGRAPHY.

A. W. Howitt, D.Sc. — On Group- Marriage in Australian Tribes. — The native
tribes which surround Lake Eyre, in Central Australia, have two forms of marriage.
One follows upon betrothal of children by their mothers, and the other is the subsequent
marriage of the woman to a younger brother of her husband. On ceremonial occasions
this latter form of marriage is extended in the tribe by the allotment to each other of
meu and womcu who are already allotted to each other under one or other of the two
marriages.

This group-marriage also occurs in other tribes in South-east Australia, either in
the form which it has in the Lake Eyre tribes or as a survival of custom. It is also
shown by the system of relationship in the Australian tribes to have been at one time
common to all.

In the Lake Eyre tribes there is female descent with group-marriage. In other
tribes in which group-marriage is merely a survival, or is merely indicated by the termi-
nology of relationship, there has heen more or less an approach to a form of individual
marriage accompanied by a change from female to male descent.

Changes such as these are attended also by alteration of the social organisation of
the tribes. In one direction there has been a segmentation of the tribe from a division
of two intermarrying exogamous moieties of the tribal community to four such divisions,
and finally into eight, with a change also in the line of descent. In the other direction
there has been a partial or complete loss of this division of the community into four and
eight segments.

The tribe has become organised ou a geographical basis into a number of local
groups, and these localities have become exogamous and intermarrying. In these
changes in the organisation of the tribes the line of descent has passed from the female
to the male line.

In the Lake Eyre tribes a group of totems is attached to each exogamous moiety.
These remain in existence in the segmentation into four and eight groups.

In those tribes where the organisation of the tribe has become local, the totem
groups have either become more or less extinct or have changed in extreme cases iuto
magical names without influence in marriage.

R. S. Lepper, M.A., LL.M. — The Passing of the Matriarchate.

[ 159 ]

No. 103.] MAN. [1904.

Sir Richard Temple, Bart., CLE. — A Plan for a Uniform Scientific Record of
the Languages of Savages. — The theory starts with a consideration of the sentence,
i.e., the expression of a complete meaning, as the unit of all speech. In internal
development the sentence is ultimately divided into words, considered as components of
its natural main divisions, in the light of their respective functions. From the functions
of words the theory passes to that of the methods by which they are made to fulfil their
functions. Words can be divided into classes accordiug to function, and are transferred
from class to class. This leads to an explanation of connected words and shows how
the forms of words grow out of their functions.

The sentence is then considered as being itself a component of something
greater, i.e., of a language. This consideration of its external development leads to the
explanation of syntactical and formative lmguages. Syntactical languages are shown
to divide themselves into analytical, and into tonic. So also formative languages are
shown to divide themselves into agglutinative and syuthetic, according as the affixes are
attached without or with alteration. Formative languages are further divided into
premutative, intromuiative, or postmutative, according to the position of the affixes.

Edgar Thurston. — The Progress of the Ethnographic Survey of Madras. — The
Madras survey covers the following linguistic areas : — Tamil, Telugu, Malayalam,
Kanaresey, Tulu, Khond ; and the racial division into Prc-Dravidian or Archi-Dravidian,
Aryo-Dravidian, Scytbo-Dravidian. In distinguishing these the uasal index is of value
as a guide to racial admixture.

The author described the characteristics of the jungle tribes, short of stature and
platyrhine ; criticised Gray's head measurements of the Indian Corouation contingent
(Man, 1903, 36) ; discussed the two main types which are found among the natives of
Southern India ; and gave the distribution of the dolicho-, mesati-, and sub brachy-
cephalic types ; and an account of the type of head in the Kauarese area, and of
Risley's Scytho-Dra vidian hypothesis. Valuable evidence on these poiuts is afforded
by the deviation of cephalic length, breadth, and index in various castes and tribes,
especially Brahmans, Todas, Palayams, Pal lis, and Uralis.

W. H. R. Rivers, M.D. — Some Funeral Customs of the Todas. — The author gave
a sketch of the complicated funeral ceremonies of the Todas, laying special stress on
certain ceremouies not previously described, in which a cloth was laid on the body of
the dead by those who had married into his clan ; and another purification ceremony in
which the relics of the dead are touched with a bow and arrow by a man adorned with
woman's ornaments. He also described the incidents of the passing of the dead man
to the next world.

R. T. Gunther. — Cimaruta, a Neapolitan Charm. — The cimaruta is a well-known
Neapolitan charm consisting of the reproduction in silver of a sprig of rue, from which
it gets its Italian name. To this sprig are appended, in most examples, a large number
of subsidiary charms. The paper was illustrated by lantern slides and examples of the
charm.

E. Demolins. — Classification Sociale. [Man.]

J. F. Tocher. — The Distribution of Surnames in East Aberdeenshire in 1696 and
1896.

The Present State of Anthropological Teaching in Great Britain (Report.) — The
report drew attentiou to the absence of facilities for anthropological teaching in the
universities of Great Britain, and compared it unfavourably with what was being done
on the continent and in America. [Rep. Brit. Assoc.~\

[A report of the other papers read before the Anthropological Section at the
Cambridge meeting will appear in a subsequent number of Man.]

Printed by Kyke and Spottiswoode, His Majesty's Printer?, East Harding Street, E.C.

Plate L.

Man\ 1904,

PORTRAIT OF A GUAYAQUI INDIAN

1904.]

MAN.

[Nob. 104-105.

GigliolL

ORIGINAL ARTICLES.
America, South. With Plate L.

Portrait of a Guayaqui Indian. By Prqfhu&r K II. Gifftfott, 1fl/l

10 the (oreetfl to the north of the Aeary sod Itoodsj rivers, IU ■

— -itllueutsof the Parana, to the ea*t of that chain of mountains which runs longitudinally

araguay — are yet to be nn remaeuts of a little known

tribe, the Gttt/i/tffut or Guayaquil A\ of Tupi deso-m. ! hoy are very wild,

and little, Indeed, 11 known about them, ami H ial OOlltftC the

M Yvrbateros" of that portion of the " AftftJMie*'* territory, who mercilessly shoot them

iiiuin when they happen to meet them. Q nfly Iliad the good

It is unfortunately, DO Bt tolhectlr i cannot hut lie of interest,

f.r it portrays a native of South A n. m< ;i slill living in the " Smiie

The aspect of this young Guayaqui warrior is peculiar ; he is all but stark naked,
two icaotj bits of skin hang in front and behind from a string round his waist; his hi
is covered by a big cylindrical cup made out of a jaguar skin, adorned at the back with
what looks like part of ah U ; round his neck bangs loosely a big thick necklace

of jaguar and peccary tooth. He holds in his hands a great bow, evidently circular in
section, very similar to the powerful bows of the neighbouring, and perhaps kindred,
K<u ay ttd Indians, and a long arrow with a hard wooden point. At his feet lies Ills
heavy stone axe, a large rude earthenware vessel, and against the latter rests a very
peculiar object, which consists of a number of limb hones of a species of monkey, probably

/< w» *, strong together on a coarse eord ; one of the articular ends of each bone is
broken otf an i KW tooth of a big rodent {Mjfopoiamut t) is fixed into it. Th US each

bone looks like a chisel or engraving tool (much like that used by the B&t&r6 of Mat to
-ho, made with an iucisor tooth of tbe capybara tied on to a wooden stick) ; but why
should there be so many strung together like a necklace? I have examined three
specimens of this very singular object, peeuliar to the Guagaqui,

Some yean ago {Int. Arrh.f. Etkmo, IX. Supply p. 33, pL iii„ tig. 7 ■ Lciden % I896 y
I dr md figured the very peculiar stone axe of the Guayaqui. I have uow seeu

four liafted specimens, and they are nil alike, merely differing slightly in sise ; tbe heavy
blade is of hard dioritie or granitoid rock, reduced futo shape by pecking, smooth but
unpolished, exe.pt at tie rounded cutting edge, which is not wry sharps itfl section Ifl
circular. The butt-end is somewhat pointed aud is let into a well-fitting slot at the
upper end of a stout club-shaped haft of tough yellow wood, very thick at the upper
. Mid, slender where it is grasped; this handle is roughly fashioned. The stone blade His
so well without the aid of any sort of mastic* that, after knocking tbe back of the handle
OH the ground, it is no easy matter to get the stone out again. E. H. GIGLIOLI.

England : Archaeology , St George Gray.

A Remarkably Thin Flint Arrowhead from Maiden Castle, |Hr
Dorchester. Bjf II. St. Grorge Gr<ttj. IUD

It has been thought to l»riug this arrow!. re the readers of M i \ (

HOI beeMM fiie form is rare, hut on account of it> remarkable thinness, its weight being
only W*6 gisjns, Sir John Evans, I l»- xmil mo id — or greater portion

el em — th.-it ins,

The titnstnition (drawn toll size) si i the arrowhead b of leef-ehspsd form,

hut. approximating ->hapro\ ! ' iih«rt niiriicly about tfh of the

oompteti implement is now missing. Its present length U W mm. (1 \ in.. i, gre
width 21 mm., greatest thickness 2*5 mm. It i- , uuuetrical and equally finely

worked on both sides.

r i« ]

Nos. 105-106.]

MAN.

[1904.

It was found lute io the summer of 1903 III the base Of the exterior >J toe of

the rum parts on the north side of the greut earthwork known afl M Maiden Castle," ;i
to the loot !i-'". est of 1 1 and \i i ai in

the possession of Mr. C. 8. Prideaux of that town. Tt

discovered by a lady on earth (moist, although a hot day ) which /

bad btWi

and it is not surpn.O- hre thinness and eyauD

of the M Bud," that she should have exclaimed,
fouii- ! I ,f

Thia important example of Him-. -hipping ii of preci
the same type of arrowhead as thai figured in Hums'- ** Stone
Imp. loud edition, p, 377, from Fy field, Wlltfl, which

is fractured in a similar manner ; hut the Fvi imeo,

although slightly largi ins. Tl> taped

I found by Dr. Tlnirnam in a long harrow on Walker's
Mill, Alton Down, X. Wilts, in 1660, freight LOB, hut

both points are deficient {/*w, Sloe, .!«/., 2nd s,r. t Vol. III.* p. 1W), Other examples
of the same Ion leo quoted on p. 377 of Evan*. The net roaofa to tbta form

figured by Mr. W. J. Kuowles in his paper Ofl u Irish Arrowheads " is Fig. 16, PI. IX. t

of the.W*. Anihr. /«*/., Vol, XXXIIH, 1903. H. St. GEORGE S»AT.

Nigeria. WMtehouse,

Note on the " MbaH ■ Festival of the Natives of the Ibo Country, jl\A

S. Nigeria* Extract from q Letter from A. A. fFUieAoUie t Acting Divisional IUO

Ct * m ; com m unieatcd bp C II. Rett */, F, s,A.

During a visit made lately to the Iho country. Southern Nigeria, I took BOO&e
photographs which are considered unique. The following slight description of lbs

BObjeoti and the native custom in OOODectlOU therewith may he of interest. In the prin-
cipal Viltag6fl there is
held a yearly IV

d Btbari (beautiful),
which last! foi some
weeks, and in which the
comely
ke part. For
|i um lime before the
4 * play " these girli are
busilj ! odel-

ling figures of wood and
eltfj representing i

CnstoUS*, familial 'Objects,
and the like, Which

are platted round the

vi rand ah of the bottSS

which they occupy dor

ing the festivities. The

walls of this house are

■■ ** ij decorated with ela-

borate worked designs fa various colours, as can he seen in the photographs. During

the period ol the "play 1 ' these women are all real licence- During the day tl

visit the various "quarters" or "compounds/ 1 dancing ;md swinging and receiving

[ *« 1

1904 J MAN. [Nos. 106-107

numerous presenta from their frienda *.md admirers. At night 1

ti placed open th , Even womei

ure married and li return to then on these

The"pt»y 'Ma bolt

in honooi el the par-

tieulai fetiah o\ jvju

n favours

and i^ arranged by the

a be i MiitDii.

L^O

the parttcipai

l¥ <*Az t naH

Ffg, In;

hippo devouring a child

mm I ,- ' ; :

to tbe horror

WE J v^ ^

of tbe mother. Notice

Hr 1 i^S* -^ tvX i

of tbe

fiA Mv wkJtjzp

elaborate way in

■^h V A^ " ^^ *ofl

tbe bail la dreaaedi

Tbe woman on tbe

a t '^B ™^^« l^^^J SB Bjv

right, judging by tin

. j^^^^ w- ^^ ll\ Smfll

p ioatmmenl In bit

Fm '^rm.^

bun.; ,s to be

' "< -■ Pig, 2. The only

explanation I could obtuin of thfa subject is that the girl lying down is about |.

ha 1 ill cut or sliarju/ued ; but it does not BOefn probable that a betchet w j u Jil be

1 for tbe purpoee.

Hairpins as worn

r * isV >#■■?

by tbe lady presiding

ere made by tbe native

■^■M^^oll w^'

blacksmiths,

Pig 8, Tbit li of

in( fcfajB

P« Rv ^^^^^^ ^^S i^

manner of the

P%l fkJX^^. „ \ «^^^

back hair. Many of tbe

9KiP4l^

women : False

i , w bieb ti collected

IHlI > Mfi

i e hu--

i on betrothal He

■W ■* J ^ '

not only contributes bis

' a. ^ * Ly ^^W j9 1 ^^3 vS

own ba<r, but alao pu> -

W ' r' A4 lik

to make up

PPw vwSklfml

[Hired quantity.

since tbe tna nay

rint be consummated un -

til tbe bair is dressed in

tbe approved manner, viz.. low down on Use seek ai shown, or in two long braids.

1N31TEHOUSE,

Thomas.

Terminology,

Studies In Terminology; 1, Magic. Hy W* W t Thnmtt*. M.A. IflT
More than twenty jreara ago Dr. Tvlor pointed out that tbe word magic la lUl

1 to include a d UMSS ol ' iu being

[ W3 1

No. 107.] MAN. [1904.

beyond those ordinary sequences which men term cause and effect and regard as natural
because they are regular. Nevertheless we still go on talking of magic without further
defining our meaning, and discuss the question of the priority of magic or religion as if
it were unthinkable that both or either should have had more than one origin.

Starting with the rough definition that magic is the outcome of an erroneous view
of nature and causation, we class as magic the belief in sympathetic influence, in the
efficacy of spells, in the personal power of a shaman to influence the course of nature, in
the power of a wizard to constrain or persuade spirits to do his will, in the possibility of
discovering the future by divination, and finally, and most erroneously, in the power of
the savage leech to cure diseases by suggestion, the effect of which is heightened by a
certain amount of humbug.

Dr. Frazer's view is slightly different. Taking the standpoint of the savage as his
guide, he classes as religion all rites into which propitiation or worship enters, and
regards all others as magical. Magic is also defined as savage science — the idea that
in nature one event follows auother necessarily and invariably — and Dr. Frazer includes
in the savage's scientific world not only material objects but also animate agents, so far
as their actions are conceived as explicable on strictly deterministic principles, and as
resulting from the operation by immutable laws acting mechanically. He, however,
includes under magic a number of cases in which the volition of spirits is called into
play, as in the cases where the deity is subjected to ill-usage to induce him to grant his
worshippers 1 wishes,* or where he is annoyed and (apparently) sends rain as a punish-
ment,! or is appealed to by torturing animals,^ whose sufferings he can cause to cease by
acceding to the demands of his people. Now Dr. Frazer regards sacrifices made on the
do ut des principle as religious§ ; in other words, he does not attribute to the savage a
deterministic theory of psychology. It is, therefore, a little difficult to see how the
inclusion among magical rites of the cases above enumerated can be justified. In each
case the god seems to be conceived as free to choose ; in the one case he is regarded as
a lazy schoolboy whose zeal cannot be fixed, but who can be urged on to do his tasks by
the fear of punishment ; in the other he is the good boy whom rewards will spur on to
action when coerciou would (if conceived as possible at all) simply make him sulky and
produce no result. But this difference hardly seems sufficiently fundamental to justify
us in regarding the two cases as, psychologically, poles apart. Uuless, therefore,
Dr. Frazer is prepared to revise his definition of religion/, which is for him identical
with worship, he must either enlarge his definition of magic or create a third category,
a nameless tertium quid.

Mr. Marett|| seems to hold that magic, in Dr. Frazer's sense, is non-existent. The
savage does uot hold, and never has held, a scientific view of magic ; he has never con-
ceived that rain-making was a simple process of cause and effect acting mechanically,
and as soon he began to reason about these things he ceased to believe in magic,
which means no more than the unquestioning acceptance of crude theories ; he
reached a point at which his beliefs became religious, where simple mechanical causa-
tion played no part in his theory of the world, or at auy rate of that part of the world
which he supposes himself to be able to influence l»y other than purely physical
means, and he came to believe in the occult. The definition of religion as belief in
occult modes of interaction and the mysterious generally seems as much too wide as
Dr. Frazer's is too narrow. What is there, for example, in commou betweeu a prayer
to the god to heal his worshippers and the keeping of a weapon bright that has
inflicted a wound, in order that the wound itself may not fester ? Yet Mr. Marett
would apparently class both uuder religion.

* G.B.\ I. 106. t /*. 108. t **. § lb - l18 -

|| Folklore, Vol. XV., p. 132 >q.

[ 164 ]

1904.] MAN. [No. 107.

I do not propose to discuss hero the proper definition either of religion or magic.
I merely wish to classify the ideas as they have presented themselves to various
civilised enquirers. In presenting these suggestions I do not mean to imply that the
ideas included under each head are necessarily found in practice; they may be pure
figments of the civilised imagination. In discussing their real existence or otherwise, it
is clearly desirable to have an accurate terminology. Nor, again, do I mean to imply
that where found they are necessarily found in a pure form. On the contrary, it seems
clear that, in this sphere of primitive thought more than in any other, we meet with
puzzling mixed forms which are neither fish, flesh, or good red herring.

I propose to classify our facts under five main headings — magic, shamanism and
witchcraft, theurgic magic, incantation, and divination.

I. (a.) Natural or Physical Magic. — The savage seems to believe that natural
phenomena, in reality uncontrollable, can be influenced by purely physical means. Take,
for example, the Victorian black, who places the stone or sod in the bough of the tree ;
he says, " Him no pull through that."* This can hardly mean anything than that he
regards the obstacle to the sun's course as a purely physical one. If any doubt be felt
on this point it can, perhaps, be dispelled by reference to another class of beliefs relating
to the sun. In West Africa the daily motion of the sun is regarded by one tribe as due
to the fact that tribes in the east and west fight for it,f just as the Queensland blacks
believe that the moon is thrown up by one tribe of blacks and caught by another.}
A common Polynesian myth relates how the sun at one time moved faster, but Maui,
or some unnamed person, wishing to finish some work, snarsd it and refused to
release it until it promised to go slower.§ It is not only gods who are able to catch
the luminary in this way. Iu America the foxes are angry with it and catch it on the
brow of a hill, the Yuroks come and kill the foxes and liberate the sun, and the hole
that it burned in the ground is visible to this day.|| So, too, Chape wi among the Dog-
ribs, Nanaboujou among the Potawatomies, and Tchakabech among the Montagnais, all
have sun catching adventures ;% in Europe the Germans tell a tale of a similar kind.**
It can therefore hardly be argued that the idea of a physical check on the motion of the
sun is foreign to the savage mind.

80, too, the wind is controlled. The Lapp and Shetland witches sold it.ft Like
the musk crow in Gippsland, who at the command of Bunjil shuts up the wind in a bag
of kangaroo skin, ^Eolus keeps the winds confined and hands them to Odysseus in a
leathern bag.JJ It is easy, but unnecessary, to multiply examples. Where the spirit is
conceived as involved, the processes employed and the results attained are not regarded
as dependent on the nature of that spirit, but on the ordinary properties of material
bodies.

(b.) Mimetic Magic. — Under this head I class all those well-known cases, such as
rainmakiug, where, prima facie without the intervention of a spiritual being, the result
is attained by prefiguring it in miniature.

Even where the subjects of this charm — the rain, the sun, the wind, or whatever
they may be — are regarded as animate, the rain-charm seems to operate not by
influencing their will but by imposing on them a kind of physical necessity of which

* B rough Smyth, Aborigines, II. 334.

t Frobenius (Weltansch, 284) refers the belief to the Ewe, but his references are wrong.

X Morrill, Residence, p. 19.

§ Walpole, Four Years, IF., 375 ; Mem. Soc. Acad. Cherbourg, 1856, p. 185.

|| Con/. Am. Eth., III., 60.

% Franklin, Second Jmrney, 291 ; Wise. Hist. Soc., IX., 156 ; Rel des Jes., 1637, p. 54.

•• Birlinger, I., 44«. Cf. G.B.\ I. 117.

ft Botero, Allg. Weltbeschreibung, 149 ; Teignmoath, Sketches, I., 286.

Xt Vict. Xat., VIII., 42 ; Homer, Od. 9 X., 19.

• [ 1C5 ]

No. 107.] MAN. [1904.

we find an analogue on the psychical side in the irresistible effect of the spell. If rain
does not fall the rainmaker attributes his failure to counter spells, not to the rain god's
power of resistance.

(c.) Sympathetic Magic. — The weapon which caused the wound must be kept
bright in order that the wound may not fester. The parents of a new-born child abstain
from many kiuds of food that its health may uot suffer nor its future powers of body or
mind. The tooth of the Australian initiaut must be as carefully disposed of as the
hair and nails of ordinary people. The limits of (b) and (c) are somewhat difficult to
define, and I propose to discuss them more fully on a future occasiou.

II. Sorcery. — In the classes of facts dealt with above the actual human agent
does not seem to be conceived as influencing the course of nature otherwise than by
his physical actions, unconnected though these may be to our mind with the result to
be attained. In this class, however, his influence is, for the savage, psychical rather
than physical. Here, too, we may with advantage subdivide our material.

(a.) Human Magic. — The power of the human beiug over the course of nature is
dependent on no extraneous aid. In New Caledonia certain families can control the
growth of sugar-cane, others the rain.* In Europe there is a widely-spread belief in the
magical powers of the seventh son of a seventh son, especially if he be a blacksmith.
I need hardly do more than allude to the magical powers claimed in connection with one
department of nature by the Aruuta. Dr. Frazer gives many examples of divine kings
who are believed to control the course of nature.f

(b.) Shamanism. — The shaman's power is uot inherent in him, but is derived
by initiation or other ceremonies from a store of force, regarded as impersonal and
*. % variously denominated wahau, orenda, ngai, &c. The force may also be conceived as

communicated by the gods, but is essentially, in that case too, non-personal.

(c.) Witchcraft, Nagualism. — The magician's power is derived from a spirit,
conceived as temporarily or permanently dwelling in him, or as actiug under his control.
Under this head I range the facts of witchcraft, where the attendaut spirit or familiar
corresponds to the African fetish, the American nagual, or the nyarong, &c, of Asiatic
islanders and other peoples. Here, too, must be classed the people of Japan, Java,
and Celebes, British Guiana, aud other countries. The European view, which regards
the witch as having made a compact with the devil, seems to bring their relation
rather uuder the head of religion. Such cases must therefore be excluded from this
section.

The term sorcery, which I propose as a general designation of this class of magic, refers,
properly speaking, to spells. As a matter of convenience it seems advisable to disregard
the derivation and divert it from the original meaning. The term sorcerer is frequently
used as equivalent to magician, and the original meaning being supplied by other equally
convenient terms, which are also unambiguous, there seems no objection to the slight
change suggested.

III. Theurgic Magic. — We must distinguish from sorcery the cases where
inspiration is regarded as due to possession or the displacement of the spirit of the
human being by the god. The human agent is simply a medium aud has no control

-hi A over the spirit by which he is obsessed ; he is sometimes unconscious ou returning to
himself of the action he has performed under the influence of the divine will. The
inspiration may also be of a more permanent nature and result in the action of a human
god. If uecessary the human god can be distinguished from the divine man, who is of
his own nature godlike and endowed with powers beyond those of the rest of mankind,
but yet strictly human in their character.

* Lei Mi*9. Cath., 1879, 30 ; 1880, 273. t Q •#•.* Li 154 *q.

[ 166 1

1904.] MAN. [No. 107.

So far as the witch is conceived as subject to the power of the devil witchcraft
seems to fall in line with priesthood and to be essentially religious.

IV. Incantations and Spells. — Iutermingled with nearly all the forms of magic
dealt with above we find the recognition of the power of the spoken word. Mr. Marett
regards this as simply a reinforcement of the psychical effort recognised as necessary to
project the will to a distance. There are, however, other elements in the spell.

All over the world we find savages unwilling to pronounce the name of the dead ;
the European peasant believes that at certain seasons of the year the fox, mouse, or
other distinctive animals must not be called by their ordinary names.* The fear of
summoning the person or animal seems to lie at the bottom of both these beliefs. If
that is so it is clear that a power is attributed to the spoken word which has no con-
nection with the intention of the user of it. Further, we need not suppose that the
power of the spell depends on any personal effort of the enchanter ; the influence of the
spell seems rather to fall under the category of scientific facts. So far as the spell is
irresistible it seems to imply a savage theory of psychological determinism which has
its aualogue in the physical determinism. of the charm.

Secondly, this spell may have its origin in prayer. The prayer becomes a formula,
then ceases to be recognised as a prayer, and perhaps ends by becoming unintelligible.

Incantation, as distinguished from spell, may be regarded as a form of words
chanted, or at least strung together with some regard to metre.

Etymologically charm (Lat. carmen) is the same as spell ; but here, too, considera-
tions of practical convenience may be allowed to outweigh philological arguments. The
word charm is, in the first place, not needed ; this ground is already covered by spell
and incantation. In the second place, such terms as rain-charm, suu-charm, &c, have
firmly established themselves and cannot well be altered ; and, in the third place, there
does not seem to be any equally convenient designation for a magical action as
distinguished from (1) the magical word and (2) the magical object.

The magical object we may conveniently designate amulet, where it is worn or
used to counteract magic, countercharm being an action designed to effect the same
purpose. A talisman is an object worn with the intention of gaining from it virtue "Of
some sort. It must be distinguished from fetich, an object conceived as the residence of
a spirit or as depending for its value on its connection with one.

V. Divination. — Finally, we have that form of magic which consists, uot in
endeavouring to influence the future, but in discovering what its course will be. The
sole link uniting this to the other savage beliefs and customs, included uuder the head of
magic, is the idea that a casual connection exists between events which the advance of
knowledge has taught us to regard as unconnected.

It is evident that iu discussiug the question of the origin of magic and of its true
relations to religion and possible causal relation, we cannot assume and possibly cannot
prove that any of the forms of magic classified above had the same psychological origin
as any other form. If that is so, it will make for clearness, cogency, and correctness of
thought, if henceforth the term magic is no longer employed in scientific discussion as a
definite and homogeneous concept. It may not be always advisable to adopt savage ideas
as to classification, but they will, if properly utilised, tell us much of the psychology of
the savage, and perhaps lead us further on the road to a discovery of origin, than a
classification of savage ideas from the standpoint of the civilised and sophisticated
intellect. N. W. THOMAS.

• Rochholz, Deutwher Glau.be, 114, 157 ; Grimm, D.M., p. 385, Attic, CXXIV., 68, 76 ; Wuttke,
D. Aberglaube 1 , p. 171 ; etc.

[ 167 ]

No. 108.] MAN. [1904,

REVIEWS.
America : Archaeology. Quiroga.

La Cruz in America ; Arqueologia Argentina. By Dr. Allan Quirogu. With 4 AQ
a preface by Samuel A. LafoneQuevedo,M.A. Buenos Ayrep. 1901. 24 X 16 cm. lUO
Pp. xxiv -f 280, with ninety-seven figures in the text

The services which Dr. Quiroga has rendered to South American archeeology are
perhaps little known, outside a limited circle of specialists in the history of American
man ; and he is the more to be congratulated, therefore, that the form in which he has
chosen to embody this instalment of the results of his investigations is one which will
bring them under the notice of a wider range of students, and attract atteution to the
very valuable work which is being carried on by the archaeologists and ethnographers
of the Argentine.

Dr. Quiroga's argument, in outline, is as follows : — the Roman numerals referring to
the chapters of his book, (i.) The use of the cross as a religious symbol in pre-
Columbian South America is well attested, by the descriptions left by the first Spanish
invaders and by the earl< r missionaries ; by the survival of many cruciform or cross-
marked monuments which are known to have been objects of worship among the
"unconverted natives ; and by a number of mythological motives, which are widespread
and deeply rooted in native American belief. This point is further illustrated, with
numerous quotations-in-full, by Professor Lafone Quevedo, in his prefatory note to the
volume, (ii.) The cross, where it originates independently, as iu the American instauce
it may fairly be held to have originated, must be considered in the light of its abstract
geometrical character, which refers it (at all events in its " Greek " or equilateral form,
which is fundamental in the American series) to the attempt to connect in one symbolic
gioup four equivalent points. The cross, when used as a substantive motive iu art or
ritual, may accordingly be presumed, in default of other evidence, to be symbolic of
some group-of-four. The wide distribution of such symbolic crosses in American art
is well known, and is copiously illustrated by Dr. Quiroga, particularly from Chile and
Tucuman ; and most of all from the district of Calchaqui, the symbolic art of which he
has made the object of special study, based on regular excavation and ample collections
of his own. (iii.) The Peruvian evidence, which is the clearest on this point, connects the
cross symbol definitely with certain " groups-of-four " in the shape of constellations
and other aerial powers, which are the objects of known native cults. (iv.) The
Mexican evidence points to the same conclusion ; and similar ideas may be traced in
American mythology and folklore as far north as the Haidas. The groups-of-four, in
these instances, are likewise aerial or meteoric powers, such as the " four winds " or " four
quarters," or "four supporters" of the heaven ; and it is notorious that such quatrains
are not peculiar to the New World, (v.) The marked prevalence of symbolic " fours "
amoug the American peoples coincides so closely with the prevalence of weather-cults,
and particularly rain-cults — to which the climatology of the continent gives such inevit-
able prominence — as to support the theory that there is some real connection between the
two. We may accordingly adopt as a working hypothesis the view that the cross may
symbolise either the Rain Power, or even simply the rain, (vi.) Now the symbolic art of
Calchequi culminates in a great series of most elaborate attempts to depict atmospheric
phenomena, and particularly the characteristic tormenta or cyclonic storms, in symbolic
scenes, sometimes largely zoomorphic or even anthropomorphic in design : the principal
motives of these — omitting abstract elements such as zigzags, meanders, spirals, and
groups of dots — being serpeuts, *wrt-birds (the " South American ostrich ") and frogs.
Now, all these motives are found intimately associated with crosses, either appeuded
to them or actually inscribed upon them. Moreover, these zoomorphs themselves are
shown, by the evidence of cult aud folklore, to have some connection in popular belief
with the weather powers ; this is best showu by the popular treatment of snakes in

[ 168 ]

1904.] MAN. [Nob. 108-109.

the country districts of South America, and by the common repute of the suri-blrd as
a sure weather-prophet, (vii.) The use of the cross as an attribute of anthropomorphic
figures, and on charms and amulets, falls at once into line with this interpretation, on
the hypothesis that these objects also are in some sense weather-charms ; and the same
applies (viii.) to the numerous inscribed stones and rock-car rings, to which Dr. Quiroga
has devoted especial attention, (ix.) The frog-symbol (sapo) in Calchequi art presents
preliminary difficulties : bur the frog also has close connection in popular belief with the
weather, and particularly with the rain ; and the use of the frog-symbol in the Calchequi
vase-paintings finds a close analogue in the Brazilian tale — El Urubu y el Sapo — which
recounts how the frog went up to Heaven and came down in the rain ; a widespread
belief which has its parallel in the Old World, too. (x.) The conclusion of the whole
matter is, therefore, that, the cross-symbol obtained its vogue in America as a rain-
symbol ; that so simple a device for indicating a " group of-f our " may have originated
independently at more than one point ; but that its wide extension may, on the other
hand, be due, in part at least, to the well-established migrations of peoples from north
to south, which have taken place within the American Continent ; and that it is matter
for consideration whether it was not also as a symbol of rain, or weather, that the cross
attained its vogue in other parts of the world also. "En una palabra, la lluvia es el
motivo fundamental de la religion, y la Cruz su simbolo."

The phrase just quoted suggests a caution which must be borne in mind in more
than one passage of Dr. Quiroga's book. It is only too easy in dealing with subject-
matter of this kind, scattered over a wide area, very imperfectly explored, and liable to
wide lacunas, to commingle proof of a likely hypothesis, with deductions from it which
would bo quite in place when the proof is completed. For the most part, however,
Dr. Quiroga's wide knowledge of the material evidence, his long experience of South
American art, technology, and folklore, and his close acquaintance, as his copious foot-
notes show, with the literature of the subject, have kept his argument under control ;
and his book will be valued as a substantial contribution to our knowledge of this
curious field of enquiry. J. L. M.

Physical Deterioration. Watt-Smyth.

Physical * Deterioration ; its Causes and the Cure. By A. Watt-Smyth. -IflQ
London : John Murray, 1904. 21 X 14 cm. Pp. xv + 318. Price 6*. net. lUu

Mrs. Watt-Smyth is to be congratulated on having brought out a very admirable
popular summary of a subject of great interest at the present time. Being apparently
intended as a resume for the man in the street more than the scientific investigator, the
author has been content to accept, rather than to criticise at any leugth, the evidence as
to the existence of deterioration among our population, and has wisely devoted her
greatest attention to the causes and means of removal of the phenomena observed. The
book opens with a brief but succinct chapter on the history of the arousal of popular
interest in the question and then passes on to the evidences of physical deterioration,
laying stress on the pressing necessity of enquiry into the exact state of affairs and the
difficulty of determining our exact position in the absence of sufficient statistical
evidence.

The main argument on which she relies to show the existence of progressive
degeneration is that as urban conditions are obviously deleterious and the rural populace
more and more pouring into the towns, where ill-health and especially a high rate
of infant mortality are ripe, our physical standard must be on the down grade. That if
in 1869 as many as four-fifths of the boys applying as recruits to the army were rejected
as below the standard in stature and chest girth, and that now, with a lowered army
standard, three out of every five recruits are found unfit for service within two years, it

[ 169 ]

No. 109.] MAN, [1904.

must follow that the deterioration is progressive. Such an argument, of course, cannot
with our present knowledge be definitely refuted, though it would appear from the
evidence brought before the recent Inter-departmental Commission that the lowest level
has been passed and that matters are again improving. In this connection all readers
of this book would do well to turn to the blue book and to read especially the evidence
of Dr. Eicholz as to what has and can be done. The most that can satisfactorily be
concluded is that the physically inferior classes of society have in the course of the last
century relatively increased in numbers and so probably reduced the civic worth of the
general average.

Passing from the evidences of deterioration to their causes and cure, the author treads
safer ground, aud her chapters thereon are proportionately more interesting. She lays
great stress on the vital necessity of improved physical and moral hygiene, and shows
the evils resulting from overcrowding, improper feeding, both of infants and adults,
drink, a contaminated milk supply, long hours of employment and study for children and
more especially of deficient sleep and want of attention to the teeth.

In connection with ventilation, she points out the evils of keeping windows closed,
quoting the statistics of Rowntree, that in York only 10 per cent, of the upper, 5 per
cent, of the middle, and 3 per cent, of the lower classes had their bedroom windows
open on a September night. At this stage she obviously recommends fresh air and
open windows, but in a later chapter on school ventilation seems to prefer the use of
some " system of ventilation, 19 disregarding the fact that, in the first place, all systems are
failures, and in the second place, the houses of the class attending elementary schools
are so built as to allow of natural ventilation only, and that if at school the rising
generation is not accustomed gradually to see the possibility of living in comfort with
open windows, the greatest of moral lessons, aud one of especial value for the prevention
of diseases, more especially of consumption, is not only lost but very largely reversed.
Children would readily argue that as they do not have open wiudows at school, why
have them open at home, being ignorant or neglectful of the fact that some system of
ventilation exists in the school and none in the home.

Mrs. Watt-Smyth emphasises the great value of cleanliness as taught at school, and
points out the pity that the lessou is impaired by foolish parsimony of the local education
authorities who supply too few washing basins and clean towels. She quotes a most
instructive example of a school which possesses a swimming bath but wherein the water
could only be changed once a fortnight on account of the expense involved, eight
shillings !

The author shows the good derived from proper medical inspection of schools, the
attention to defective visiou and bad teeth, and shows the beneficial effects of proper
gymnastic exercises. She also urges strongly the necessity of educating each indivi-
dual to fit him for his environment and station in life quoting from M. Pecaut that
" a country child should be so educated as to become, not a mandarin, but a man of
* 4 the fields."

Finally, although somewhat over-enthusiastic as to the advantages of rural over
urbau surroundings for the children of the lower classes, she brings up one very important
poiut, the greater number of hours of sleep attainable by the country children, whose
parents retire early, over the denizens of the slum whose rest is disturbed by occupants
of the house or room coming in at all hours. That sleep is one of the great essentials
of growth is too often forgotten, especially by school authorities.

A perusal of this work will show to all interested iu the question of the future of
the race or in the management of large numbers of children, whether in a public or
private capacity, certain lines along which great advances cau be made. F. S.

[ 170 1

1904.] MAN. [No. 1X0.

PROCEEDINGS OF SOCIETIES.
Proceedings. British Association.

Anthropology at the British Association : Cambridge Meeting, August lift
Mth to 24th, 1904 (continued from Man, 1904, 103). I III

Tbe destination of the full text of each paper, so far as it is determined as yet, is
indicated in square brackets.

ARCHAEOLOGY.

Palaeolithic.

Professor E. B. Poulton, F.R.S. — Records of Palaeolithic) Man from a New
Locality in the Isle of Wight, — The flints exhibited had all been discovered by Mws
Moseley within three days of the meeting of the Association. They were found on the
north-east coast, and previous to this discovery traces of palaeolithic man had been
extremely rare on tho island. The implements, which were mostly found in a gravel
escarpmeut, exhibited every stage of manufacture and had clearly been made in situ.

Miss N. F. Latard. — Further Excavations on a Palceolithic Site in Ipswich,
[Journ. Anthr. Inst,']

Egyptology.

Professor W. M. Flinders Petrie, D.C.L., F.R.S. — Note on the Entomology
of the Scarab, — The author discussed the various species and genera of beetles which
were used by makers of scarabs in ancient Egypt at different periods. He distinguished
five principal types representing the genera scarabaus, catharsius, copris, gymnopleurus,
and hypselogenia. The characteristic forms of these kinds of beetle were described in
the shape of the head, outline of the wings, and the treatment of the legs. The use of
so many kinds of beetles as models for scarab amulets is illustrated both in Egyptian
medical papyri and in the modern folklore of Egypt.

Professor W. M. Flinders Petrie, D.C.L., F.R.S. — Excavations at Ehnasya,
— For the substance of this paper, see Man, 1904, 77.

J. Garstang, B. Litt., F.S.A. — The Royal Tomb at Negadeh, in Upper Egypt.
— Tbe authors excavations were supplementary to those of M. de Morgan, and the
results suggest that the tomb is not that of Mena, as generally supposed, but of his
mother.

Professor Oscar Montelius. — The Evolution of the Lotus Ornament, — Iu
Egypt the lotus has been represented from the earliest times as real flowers, often
together with buds and leaves, or as ornamental patterns. The lotus is drawn as well
iu the realistic form as in a conventional shape. The lotus is often combined with
spirals.

In Assyria, where the lotus ornaments are later than in Egypt, we find also both
the realistic and the conventional lotus (" palmetto ").

In Cyprus, as in Phoenicia, the conventional lotus often has a peculiar form ("the
Phoenician " or " Cypriote palmetto ").

In Greece the lotus occurs iu the Mycenaean time, but becomes common only in the
first millennium B.C. There we find the lotus in combination with spirals, the realistic
and the conventional lotus.

Capitals in the shape of a lotus-flower occur in Egypt and Asia Minor, where they
gradually get the form known as the u Ionian capital."

Mediterranean Lands.

Professor P. Kabbadias, D.Sc, General Director of Antiquities in Greece. —
Prehistoric Archaeology in Greece, — [Man.]

[ "I 3

No. 110.] MAN. [1904.

Archaeological and Ethnological Researches in Crete. Report. [Rep. Brit.
Assoc."]

Arthur J. Evans, D.Litt., F.R.S. — Preliminary Scheme for the Classification
and approximate Chronology of Minoan Culture in Crete from the close of the
Neolithic to the Early Iron Age. — The author proposed to attach the name Minoan
to this period, as indicating the probable duration of successive dynasties of priest-kings,
the tradition of which had taken form in the name of Miuos. He proposed to divide
this era into three periods, Early, Middle, and Late, each with three sub-periods. He
dated the third Late Minoan period between 1500 and 1100 B.C.

The second Late Minoan period receives its fullest illustration in the remains of
the latest Palace period at Kuospos. Its latest arts show correspondence to those
associated with the Kefts on Egyptian monuments, and alabaster vases of the XVIII
dynasty were found in the Royal Tomb at Knossos. The period may thus be dated
from 1700-1500 B.C.

An earlier stage of the later Palace has now been made out. It is an age of
ceramic transition and the period when naturalistic art reached its highest perfection.
An earlier system of linear script was found. The period may be placed approximately
between 1900 and 1700 B.C.

The Middle Minoan period is marked by the development of the polychrome style
of vase painting on a dark ground. During the last division of this period, at the end of
the Third Millennium B.C., there is a falling off in the polychrome style accompanied
by a greater naturalism. The period is one of a conventionalised pictographic script,
preceding the linear.

During the second Middle period the polychrome style reached its acme. The
beginning of the period is approximately dated by the discovery of the Kahuu studs by
Professor Petrie, dating from Usertesen II of the XII dynasty. The date of the
period lies between 2300 B.C. and 2700 B.C., and the evidence from Crete excludes the
extreme bringing down of the XII dynasty to the borders of the XVIII. The seals
of the period are another proof of XII dynasty contact.

In the Kahuu deposit were found objects of a simpler style belonging rather to the
first Middle period. The influence of Middle Empire design is well marked on the seals
of the period, and the ruder class of conventionalised pictographs are seen on the seals of
this date. The beginning of this period may therefore be thrown back to the middle
of the Third Millennium B.C., and perhaps even to its beginniug.

The Early Minoan period is characterised by its special class of seal-stones, many
showing adaptations of motives from VI dynasty buttou seals. Certain early stone
vases resemble those of the Early Dynastic period in Egypt, while Egyptian syenite vases,
of one of the first four dynasties, were found at Knossos. The Egyptian connections
point to a date for the beginnings of Early Minoan culture not later than the middle of
the Fourth Millennium B.C.

Below the earliest Minoan floor level to the west court of the Palace, found at a
depth of about o\ inches, were nearly 6£ metres of neolithic slate. Assuming that the
average rate of deposit was fairly continuous, this gives an autiquity of about 12,000
years for the earliest neolithic settlement at Knossos.

R. C. Bosanqdet, M.A., F.S.A., Director of the British School at Athens. —
Excavations at Heleia {Palaikastro) and Praisos in Eastern Crete. — The British
School again excavated at Palaikastro, the Minoan town which has yielded importaut
results in two previous seasons, from March 25 to June 17.

1. Late Palace. — The further excavation of Block Delta showed that this was the
palace or Government House of the latest Mycenaean period. It has an imposing facade
of huge ashlar blocks, aud the general plan of the ground floor can be recovered. Some
well-preserved magazines yielded an important series of painted vases and some terra-

[ 172 ]

1904.] MAN. [No. 110.

cotta figures of a goddess, in one case graspiug a snake. Remains of three earlier
periods were revealed. Fragmeuts of an ostrich egg % found at a very low level, point
to early intercourse with Africa.

2. Other Work in the Town. — The main street was followed iu both directions,
and two low hills to the west and south-west of it were excavated. Four blocks of
somewhat poor houses were opened up and yielded valuable finds, notably two delicately-
carved ivory statuettes, a large bronze ewer, and a richly-painted bath. An ivory
plate carved with conventional crocodiles betrays indirect Egyptian influence.

3. Cemeteries. — In the curious ossuaries of the Middle Minoan period were found
seals of ivory and steatite, a miniature gold bird, and small models of a dagger and of
sickles. A very early burial-place near the headland of Kastri contaiued beaked jugs
of au exaggerated pattern and a remarkable clay model of a boat. A later cemetery,
containing lartiax burials, yielded bronze implements, beads, and vases like those in the
palace magazines. South of the town a steatite libation table on which are engraved
seventeen characters of the Minoan linear script was discovered.

4. Temple. — In trenching the area within the Minoan town Mr. Bosanquet found
a broken slab of grey marble inscribed with a Doric hymn in honour of the youthful
Zeus. The lettering is of the Romuu age, the composition genuinely archaic. It refers
to his nativity iu the Dictsean cave, aud leaves no doubt that we have here the temple
of Zeus Diktaios, the territory of which was a subject of dispute between Hierapytna
and Itanos until the matter was settled by arbitration in the second century B.C. We
may now restore to the plain of Palaikastro its classical name of Heleia mentioned in
the arbitration award.

5. Researches at Praisos. — Numerous architectural members and fragments of
inscriptions have now been found here by Mr. Bosanquet. A temple on the summit
seems to have been demolished and its materials thrown over the cliff. It is probable
that this was the chief sanctuary of Praisos, possibly the temple of Dictsean Zeus
mentioned by Strabo. The most important inscription is one in the ancient Eteocretan
language, which was hitherto known only from two inscriptions, both found on this
hill, in Greek characters of the third or fourth century before our era. [Annual of the
British School.]

Sir Richard Jebb read notes on the fragments of a hymn to the Dictsean Zeus
found by Mr. Bosanquet on the site of the god's temple at Palaikastro, in Crete. The
inscription is in duplicate on the face and ou the back of a slab of grey marble. The
version on the back shows many gross blunders in spelling ; that on the face, though
not free from errors, is much more correct, and was presumably intended to replace the
other. In the case of one word, however, the version on the back serves to correct that
ou the face. The characters may be of the second or third century a.d. The hymn
itself is probably old. It begins with au invocation of Zeus, welcoming his annual
visit to his shriue at Dicte. This invocation recurs as a refraiu after each of the six
short stauzas. The first stanza describes the singers, with harps and flutes, standing
rouud the god's altar. The second refers to the legend of the Curete* having received
the infant Zeus from Rhea. There is a meution of their shields, which is illustrated by
the fact that some miniature shields (votive offerings) and fragments of one large shield
have been found on the site. All the stanzas, after the first, are much mutilated, but
afford glimpses of the sense. The hymn went ou to speak of blessings associated with
the presence of Zeus at Dicte. Justice and peace prevail ; cities prosper ; ships travel
safely ; Themis is upheld. The name Curetes, at least iu Crete, seems always to have
deuoted dsemouic beings, never priests ; and it was as daimones that the Curetei figured
iu this hymu. That poiut is illustrated by a fragmeut of the Cretans of Euripides,
where the leader of a chorus of priests describes himself as vowed to the mystic cult of

[ "3 J

No. 110.] MAN. 0904.

the Curetes. Mr. Bosanquet has hopes that some further fragments of this interesting
hymn may be found at Palaikastro.

After speaking of the hymn, Sir Richard Jebb referred to a passage in the paper of
Dr. Arthur Evans, where Minos was characterised as " a Cretan Moses," and suggested
an illustration of it. In Plato's Laws (p. 624a) the Cretan, Cleinias, says that the laws
of Crete were derived from Zeus, and the Athenian then asks : " Do you mean that,
" as Homer has it, Minos went every ninth year to converse with his father, and made
" the laws for your cities iu accordance with the utterances heard from him ? " The
Cretan replies : " Yes, that is our tradition." Plato's allusion is to the Odyssey, xix,
178f : u [Crete], where Miuos reigned, who in each ninth year cou versed with Zeus."
Others take the Homeric words to mean, u who reigned for nine years," or, u who
reigned at nine years old." But Plato's interpretation seems better. It is easy to
conceive that Cretan legend pointed to some mountain where Minos went up, like Moses
on Sinai, to be inspired with the wisdom of a law-giver.

R. M. Dawkins, B.A. — Painted Vases of the Bronze Age from Palaikastro. —
The resemblance of the series of styles found at Palaikastro with those found elsewhere
in Crete makes it possible to use the terms used at Knossos, " Minoan," &c. in
describing the successive styles of Bronze Age vases. A series of slides was shown
giving geometrically-painted vases of the Early Minoan period, then polychrome vases
of the Middle Minoan period, and, lastly, examples of the three phases of the Late
Minoan period, showing the development of the styles of design from their geometrical
beginning, with patterns imitated from the earlier incised ware, through the freer style
of the Middle Minoan to the naturalistic style of Lute Minoan I, and then exhibiting
the process of forma I i sat ion which ends with the rigid formal style of decoration that
characterises vases of the Late Minoan III time. At the same time it shows the growth
of the light-ou-dark polychrome style of the Middle Minoan, aud its gradual change
through the abandonment of subsidiary colours to the monochrome dark-on-light style
of the later parts of the Late Minoau period. [Annual of the British School. ~]

Professor R. S. Conway, Litt.D. — The Linguistic Character of the Eteocretan
Language. — The author illustrated his subject by an inscription discovered by Mr.
Bosanquet at Praisos in June 1904. The text is too fragmentary to admit of eveu
conjectural interpretation, but presents several new features of interest in phonology
and morphology not inconsistent, in the author's judgment, with the conclusions as to
the Indo-Europeau nature of the lauguage which he has drawn from the two inscriptions
previously known. [Annual of the British School.']

R. C. Bosanquet, M.A., F.S.A., Director of the British School at Atheus. — On a
Find of Copper Ingots from Chalcis. — The author described a find of copper iugots at
Chalcis in Euboea. This was a shipwrecked cargo of niueteen ingots, weighing from
25 to 40 lbs., and perhaps dating from the Brouze Age. Similar ingots or talents of
copper had been found at Mycenae, at Phaestus in Crete, and in Cyprus aud Sardinia.
A recent discovery of bronze axes in an ancient copper working on Mount Othrys might
be takeu as evideuce that the copper ores of Othrys were known in Mycenaeau times ;
Chalcis may havebeeu so-called as beiug the chief emporium, though not the real source
of this copper. The relative abundance of such hoards of brouze axes suggests that they
were used as a means of exchange, especially iu Crete, where many axes have been
found which have a haft-hole too small to admit a serviceable handle. It is remarkable
that in historic times in Crete the word iriXeicvi; (axe) is said to have deuoted a fraction
of the talent.

Professor Oscar Montelius. — The Geometric Period in Greece. — The Geo-
metric period succeeds the Mycenaean period iu Greece and in the isles of the jftgrean
Sea. In the western part of Asia Minor, where the author thinks that the Mycemean
culture continues long after its disappearance in Greece, the Greek Geometric style is

[ 174 1

1904.] MAN. [No. 110.

not represented. At the end of the Mycenaean period iron began to be used and the
fibula became known in Greece.

Most of the remains from this period are ceramic. The technique is about the
same as in the Mycenaean time. Some of the forms are also derived from those of the
preceding period ; but the predominant ornaments are different, being geometric. The
swastika, extremely rare iu the Mycenaean period, is very common. In Attica men,
women, horses, chariots— forming scenes of funeral solemnities and races — are sometimes
painted on the vases, but the figures are drawn in a most infantile way.

The Geometric style is not derived from the countries to the north of Greece, being
earlier in Greece than in other parts of Europe, but is an inferior continuation of the
Mycenaean, which cannot be accounted for only through the migrations of the Dorians,
because the difference between the Geometric aud the Mycenaean style is as great in
Attica — where the Dorian invaders did not come — as in other parts of Greece. The
explanation may be that the foreigners (Tyrrhenians or Pelasgians), to whom, in the
author's opinion, the Mycenaean culture was due, had been expelled, and the Hellenic
people had not yet reached the same high degree of civilisation as these foreigners. The
Geometric period began in the twelfth century B.C. It can be divided into the following
parts : — The first Geometric period (in Attica, the older " Dipylon vases") ; the second
Geometric period (** Phaleron vases " and skyphoi) ; the third Geometric period (" pre-
Corinthian " vases). This last period ends about 700 B.C.

Europe.

The Lake Village of Glastonbury. {Report.) [Rep. Brit. Assoc.']

Roman Sites in Britain. {Report,) [Rep. Brit. Assoc.] — The Committee on the
Excavation of Roman Sites in Britain presented a report containing a summary of its
work during the year.

Mr. T. Ashby, Jun., F.S.A., gave a short account, illustrated by lantern slides, of
the excavations of the past year at Caerwent. In the course of the excavations the gap
which had been supposed to be the south gate had been cleared out, and the gate found
to be parallel to the gate on the north side. An inscription dedicated to Mars had also-
been discovered, bearing the date August 23, 152 a.d.

Professor Valdemar Schmidt. — The Latest Discoveries in Prehistoric Science
in Denmark. — (1.) Investigations have been made in recent years in the National
Museum of Copenhagen on the musical properties of the famous trumpets of the Bronze
Age, called in Danish generally Lur.

(2.) The oldest period of the Danish Stone Age, only recently discovered, is earlier
in time than the u kitchen-middeus" and much anterior to the dolmens, from which the
bulk of the well-known Danish flint implements have been derived. In a peat-bog in
Western Zeeland were found many objects of stone and wood of a primitive order,,
evidently from an early part of the Stone Age. A careful study of these objects and of
their position in the bog proved that the prehistoric inhabitants who left or dropped
those implements must have been dwelling on rafts in the middle of a lake.

(3.) It has been discovered during the past few years what kinds of grains of corn,
wheat, and barley were in common use iu the different prehistoric periods of Denmark
from the impressions of grains of corn in the pottery.

(4.) Special study has been devoted lately to the distribution of tumuli in different
parts of Deumark. The Director of the Prehistoric Museum of Copenhagen, Dr. Sophus-
Muller, who has been the leader in the cartography of prehistoric remains, has recently
stated that the tumuli always follow ancient roads through the country, and that lines
of tumuli always lead towards the fords of the larger rivers, and avoid the swampy
ground. It is to be supposed that ihe people who were buried in the tumuli had.

t ire i

No. 110.] MAN. [1904.

dwelt near their graves, and traces of such dwelling-places have been found at some
few places.

T. H. Bryce, M.D. — On a Phase of Transition between the Chambered Cairns
and Closed Cists in the South-west Corner of Scotland. — If the rare instances of
interment in cinerary urns be excluded, the forms of prehistoric sepulture in Argyleshire
and Buteshire may be grouped under two heads : (1) Interment in chambers with a
portal, but uo passage, of entrance ; and (2) intermeut in completely closed cists. In
both classes the interment may be either by inhumation or after cremation. They differ
in the mode of interment, in the character of the osseous remaius, and in their associated
reiics.* The implements are invariably of stone in the chambers ; they are occasionally
of bronze in the closed cists. The chamber pottery is of a black paste ; the vessels are
round in the bottom, and have either a broad flat lip or are inclined inwards to the
mouth ; the decorative pattern is one of straight lines and dots, or of fluted markings, or
(rarely) of concentric semi-ellipses. The closed cist pottery is of a red paste, generally
of the * food vessel type," but more rarely of the " drinking-cup " or " beaker" class.

An atypical form of chamber occurs, consisting of a single compartment covered by
one flagstone (cistvaen), with one end lower than the others, and forming the sill of a
portal guarded by two upright stones.

The exploration of a cairn at Glecknabae, Bute, afforded a clue to the classification
of the chambered structures and pointed to a stage of transition from the chamber to the
short cist.

The pottery discovered in the chambers provided the key to the period to which the
chambers belonged, for in one a typical piece of chamber pottery was found, with
fragments of a second ; in the other fragments of four vessels were recovered, of the
"beaker " or *• drinking-cup" class. The decoration was zonular in one, but irregular in
the others. The phenomena indicate a triple occupation of the site at three successive
epochs* The presence of the "beaker" type of ceramic seems to point to the small
chamber being a late departure from the normal chamber structure.

Africa.
R. N. Hall. — Recent Explorations at Great Zimbabwe. — The ruins' area is now
shown to be more than three times larger than has hitherto been stated ; many of the
minor ruins and also reconstructions of, and additions to, the older ruins have been
ascertained to be of no great antiquity, some dating most probably only from the
thirteenth or fourteenth century of this era, and others are even more recent. It is now
believed that the eastern half of the Elliptical Temple, and that which contains the best
built and most massive walls, and also the sacred cone or " high place " is the oldest
structure at Zimbabwe, while the western portion is surrouuded by a wall of later and
poorer and altogether slighter construction, probably also of the thirteenth century, or
somewhat later, which wall took the place of a more substantial wall with a wider sweep
outwards towards the west. The eastern has yielded phalli in abundance — the author's
discoveries bringing the ascertained number of true phalli found there to considerably
over a hundred — together with carved beams and the older class of relic ; while in the
western half of the building not a single relic with auy claim to antiquity prior to the
thirteenth and fourteenth ceuturies of this era has yet been found. No ancient sign-
writing has been discovered, but old post-Koranic writiug on pottery was found in some
minor ruins now known to have been occupied by Arab colonists. The history of the
local native race of Makalanga, " People of the Sun," has now been ascertained for a
period of at least 200 years, as also an accouut of the native occupation of the ruins for
a considerable number of generations past.

* Bryce, Proc. Sue. Antiq. Scot,, vols, xxxvi., xxxvii., xxxviii.
Printed by Ktke and Spottiswoodb, liis Majesty's Print tp, hiast Harding Street, E.C.

I'LATE M.

Man

MAORI FEATHER BOX.

CAMBRIDGE MUSEUM OF ARCHEOLOGY AND ETHNOLOGY

1904.] MAN. [Nos. 111-112.

ORIGINAL ARTICLES.
New Zealand. With Plate M. Hiigel.

Maori Feather-Box. By Baron A. von II u gel, M.A. AAA

The box figured on Plate M. was recently bought by myself in Gosport. It III
forms one of a series of eleven boxes deposited in the Cambridge Museum, and is a
remarkable specimen of Maori work, which, in richness and finish of carving aud
beauty of design, far surpasses any of the other Cambridge specimens, though these
were selected with care, and are above the average of good and typical specimens. Both
in its shape and its scheme of decoration, the Gosport box offers some peculiarities, but
these will be so clearly seeu by a study of the figures, that no minute description need be
given. I may mention, however, that the box is cut out of Kauri pine, which through
age has assumed a very dark brown colour, that the iuside is carefully squared and
finished, and that the lid tits very accurately into the rabbet of the rim. Its dimensions
are : — length (including handles), 18 7 inches ; breadth, 15*5 inches ; height (including
cresting of lid), 54 inches.

All I could learn concerning the origin of this box was that it had been purchased
years ago — prior to 1 870, I believe — at a curiosity shop in Portsmouth.

ANATOLE v. HUGEL.

Greece : Archaeology. Kabbadias.

Prehistoric Archaeology in Greece. Being a Paper read before the AAf\

Anthropological Section of the British Association. By Professor P. Kabbadias, I \L
D.Sc, General Director of Antiquities in Greece.

I am very sensible of the houour done me by the British Association in inviting me
to address the Section of Anthropology. I cau best employ the few and precious
moments at my disposal by laying before you a brief statement as to the present
coudition of anthropology and pre-historic archaeology in Greece.

The soil of Greece, which has yielded such an abundant harvest of classical
antiquities, has not proved equally rich in objects of the earliest pre-historic periods.
We have found comparatively few objects belonging to the Stone Age, few stone
implements, no megalithic monuments, no pile-dwellings.

How is this undoubted fact to be explained ? Is the fault ours ? Have we Greek
archaeologists focussed our attention too exclusively on classical archaeology ? No. We
have found very little because there was very little to find.

But we must uot rashly conclude because there was little to find that in primieval
days Greece was uninhabited. Early settlements in all probability existed, but they
have left few traces because the sites have been reoccupied by settlers belonging to that
later civilisation curreutly known as Mvcenajan.

This is no mere theory. Our Greek Archaeological Society has recently undertaken
excavatious in Thessaly. Thessaly is a couutry in which, compared with southern Greece.
Mycenaean civilisation was less widespread. In Thessaly we have discovered no fewo.
than three pre-historic settlements, all belonging to the Neolithic Age. These settle-
ments are small fortified towns, surrounded by double walls. Inside the walls many
houses have come to light, a great quantity of stone implements, many of bone, and a
mass of vase fragments.

These " finds " are the earliest that, so far, have been discovered either in European
or in Asiatic Greece. They are the remains of those peoples who, coming from the north,
passed to the south of Greece. A complete publication of these discoveries is now in
the press aud will shortly appear.

Here and there in other parts of Greece stone implements have come to light. We
must not, however, conclude that in these places actual Stone Age settlements existed.

[ 177 ]

No. 112.] MAN. [1904.

Stone implements, it must be remembered, continued in use during the Bronze Age.
The Athenian Acropolis is a case in point. Sporadic specimens of stone implements
have been found there. But when in 1887 the whole Acropolis came to be systematical! y
excavated, I myself found twelve very interesting bronze implements lying at a depth
of 11 feet on the bed-rock — a manifest proof that the Acropolis was first peopled in the
Bronze Age.

Our Archaeological Society is also at work on excavations in the islands of the
JEgean, but the discoveries so far made are uniformly of the Bronze Age. The same
must be said of work in the Peloponnese ; up to the present time we have come on no
trace of the Stone Age. We are planning excavations in Arcadia with the hope that
there Stone Age remains may come to light. In Arcadia, in the very heart of the
Peloponnese, dwelt the earliest population of Greece ; there, as in Thessaly, the
Mycenaean and later civilisations failed to extend themselves.

My own conviction is that the remarkable altar of Zeus on Mount Lycaon will
yield the remains of an ancient Stone Age settlement. The altar in question consists
of a mound of earth in which may be observed a vast number of bones both human and
animal. Later antiquity was at a loss to explain the presence of human bones. The
current explanation was that, at this altar, human sacrifices were offered to Zeus. These
human bones are, as 1 have already indicated, in all probability the remains of a primaeva
settlement. On that point we shall eagerly await the verdict of the spade. Also in
Arcadia is another site on which the fossil remains of animals, as well as a number of
vase fragments, have come to light. This site is an important one and will be thoroughly
investigated in the course of excavations already in progress.

As regards pile-dwellings, we have so far come on nothing of the sort. From
Herodotos we learn that this sort of dwelling existed in Thrace, but we must not infer
from that that the number of them was ever considerable. My own belief is that this
mode of buildiug was never customary in Greece. Greece abounds in stone quarries,
and the earliest inhabitants were skilled hewers of stone. They therefore naturally built
fortified towns, and these served in place of pile dwellings as a protection from their
enemies. These fortified towns occupy in Greece the place taken in other countries by
pile-dwellings.

A few words must be said as to the progress of palaeontology in Greece. Our
Government has for some years past set aside yearly a fixed sum of money to meet the
expeuses of palaeontological excavations. Our excavations at present in progress at
Pikermi, at Megalopolis, and the island of Samos have been rewarded by a rich harvest.

I should like to draw attention to the efforts our uuiversity at Athens have for
some years directed to the foundation of a museum of anthropology. We have already
collected some complete skeletons and a large number of skulls from the earliest
" Mycenaean " strata. I ask the attention of all scholars to this museum, because I
believe that it is the most helpful contribution that we can offer to the vexed problem as
to the origin of the earliest inhabitants who peopled the soil of Greece.

Such is the outcome of our work so far as I cau formulate it to-day. Next spring,
when the International Congress of Archaeology meets at Athens, I hope to lay before
you further results.

The work of excavation now in progress in Greece is a great one ; the results of
recent years have raised archaeology to the rank of a great science, an honour to humanity.
This work has not beeu done by us Greeks alone, but in co-operation with other nations,
with France, with Germany, with England, with America, with Austria. Each of these
nations has in turn founded an archaeological school at Atheus and made its home
among us.

It is with peculiar pleasure that I am able to say to the audience before me that
special success has crowned the efforts of English archaeologists. The excavations

[ 178 ]

1904.]

MAN.

[Noa. 112-113.

looted hy the Brit i- a, and effpeoiallj those of Dr. Arthur

J work ihat bae been d
during the last few

Words tail me t<> describe sod their
cardinal im]

The v ; world ban followed tb with toolsm&l

At our International • fully detailed

ami explained. We Greeks rarnefilly I nted

at our eoogret will ii^itr with pride what Englishmen have done, Or*

Will be [mou.1 and bsppj to Welce l.ind, P, KAliBADIAS.

Physical Anthropology. Wright.

A Skull Stand for photographic purposes. //,, William Wfigkt % +An

■in!. ■ description and photograph <>f which follows,
purpose of remoi able diftVuirv which I experienced in placing a skull

ami accu-
rately in the position

recommended si tbe

FiaiiklVnt ConlVr-

enoe. It coot

i\vi> tf«t snd square
boards arranged at
right in

BOOtsl BQp-

rted npon bar
email I bicb,

for W>1 in

pecking]
moved kg

them.

In |

the beriseni
is I

with a mi Hod nut

which esn be raised

or le

of and

peal i w<>

oibex sere* -

a«rain provided s

a milled nut. These letter moveable to and fro In s ilot,

and ran I- ad tmiOOTeblj Bx« Ig tbfl nn( down Upon til

border i*> plso nil in position thi h the

foramen mounts*, so tbsl ottl. Tot En {root and

mppoft the tgmpkgili menti -or li the mandible Dg tbe palate — sod

• Miijiitui portion of tbe hi m the ant row aloue

kull niaii ghjU

A levellittg g itigof a pin moving in a vertical slot, art-. I\ means

of determining wi if, i>„ tbe lower rim of

[ i» ]

Xos. 113-114.] MAN. [1904.

the orbit and the highest point of the external auditory meatus in the same horizontal
plane.

Having once placed the skull in position it can be photographed from the nor met
lateralis, facialis, and occipitalis without further alteration thau unscrewing the vertical
board and attaching it to one or other of the two adjacent sides of the horizontal board,
screws and sockets being provided. By reason of the vertical board a suitable background
is always obtained. In order to photograph from the norma vertically I pass, without
moving the skull, a loop of striug through the anterior and posterior nares and attach it
to the under surface of the horizontal board securely and firmly by means of a strong pin.
So firmly should it be fixed that the stand can be placed with its previously horizontal
board vertical without affecting the position of the skull. The latter will now be as
required, and furnished with a suitable background. W1LLJAM WRIG1IT.

New Guinea. Selignnann.

Note concerning the Progress of the Cook-Daniels Expedition HHM

to New Guinea and the Solomon islands. By C. G. Seligmann, M.D. \ \*T

[Before leaving with Major Cook- Daniels for New Guinea, Dr. Seligniann
promised to communicate to Max, from time to time, notes concerning the progress of
the Expedition. The following, received a fortuight ago, forms the first instalment of
Dr. Seligmaun's promised communications.]

West of the Fly River, i.e., on Strachan Island and the Bensbach River, where
work had to be done from whale boats, and where the weather was constantly unfavour-
able, we did little more than take physical measurements and collect specimens. The folk
here do not resemble the Fly natives, being slighter men, many of them covered with
Tinea, with more variation and size in physiognomy than I have hitherto seen in one
tribe. They are totemistic with descent in the male line, and have an initiation cere-
mony for boys which closely resembles that of Mawatta. Behind Mawatta, which is
frankly totemistic, we found the Masingara split into two exogamous divisions with no
obvious signs of totemism. Of the Gulf we saw nothing. At Yule Island and Waima
we found a most elaborate system of chiefship, and wbat Daniels and I take to be the
remains of a highly-developed totemic system. Following this up in Mekeo the condi-
tion is roughly as follows. There are two tribes, Biofa and Vee, speaking the same
language. Each of tbese is divided into divisions, Pangua, portions of each Pangna
existing in many villages, which consist of groups of Pangua, each of which is — at any
rate in certain instances — made up of a number of Ikupu, i.e., family groups. Each
Pangua has an Iaufangai, e.g., the bread fruit, which is the same for groups of Pangua
which say they are Ngopi, i.e., of common descent. The Iaufangai, if edible, is eaten,
but the Kanga-Kanga, generally a bird or plant peculiar to each Pangua, is not eaten,
though, if an animal, it may be killed to obtain its feathers, which that particular Pangua
either wears as such or worked into a certain design when dancing. Pangua endogamy
is strictly insisted on. Beyond this there are Ufuapie, intermarrying groups into
which a youth ought to, aud doubtless until receutly always did, marry. Curiously
enough these Ufuapie do not uecessarily exclude groups which are also Ngopu. The
Marea (man-houses) here are sometimes named after the Kanga Kanga, and whether
this is so or not they are invoked on certain occasions, e.g., in war the name of a man's
Marea is shouted as a blow is sent home. All this is complicated by an elaborate
system of chiefship. There are usually three chiefs in each Pangua, whose functions
centre round the Marea. At Port Moresby we studied the Koitapu fairly thoroughly.
Coming eastward from there our most interesting find in the central district was that
on certain occasions the dubus are visited by the shades Qf the dead. Here in the south-
eastern district all the folk with whom we have come iu contact are totemic with descent
in the female line of their totems and land property. I use the plural " totems " as each

[ 180 ]

1904.] MAN. [Nos. 114-115.

clau has typically four, a bird, a fish, a snake, aud a plant. The bird is the most
important ; a man always gives this when asked his Sulu, while the plant totem is so
decayed that many cannot name their " tree." Further, they avoid injuring — I use the
word iu a very general way — their father's bird and fish totems more carefully than
they do their own. C. G. SEL1GMANN.

Africa, South : Animal Superstitions. Blackburn : Thomas.

Animal Superstitions among the Zulus, Basutos, Qriquas, and 44 p
Maffatese, and the Kafirs or Natal. By Douglas Blackburn. Communi- I ID
cated by N. IV. Thomas, 31. A.

The followiug replies to my questionnaire (Journ. Anthr. Inst., XXX., 114) have
been sent me by Mr. Douglas Blackburn, of Loteui, to whom I am much iudebted for
this very interesting information.

The Magatese inhabit the region in N.E. Transvaal, on borders of Limpopo, a hot
and mountainous country. A Natal Kafir is a cross between the Zulus, Basutos, and
Griquas. As a body they are more in touch with civilisation, and owing to missionary
influence are comparatively free from tradition and folklore. The initials after each
paragraph indicate the tribe among whom I have found the superstition observed.

1. Most small crested birds are lucky. One kind, a crested wren, is caught, carried
to the neighbourhood of the hut and released. This procures an easy childbirth. Others
flying over the crops betoken good harvest. Z. B. K. G.

2. The snake umlangwa — a snake as to poisonous character of which local authorities
are not agreed. Its entry to a hut is a serious event, as misfortune is certain to befall
the hut entered. It is killed carefully so as to avoid mutilation, carried out and entwined
round a bush or branch, or laid on a path so that the shadow of the first passer-by may
take away the curse. Invocations are made by the witch doctor to the theozi, a small
snake said to be the chief spirit suake, and having the power to remove the curse. The
Zulus say that the spirit of Chaka, the founder of the Zulu nation, entered a theozi after
beiog burned, then became a hfozi ghost [pronounced shlozi, or an approximation to the
Welsh " 11." Theozi pronounced dheozi]. Theozi is not killed by old natives, but, no
serious results having followed its accidental slaughter by natives ignorant of its character,
this superstition is rapidly dying in Natal and Zululand.

4. The presence of herons or cranes in unusual numbers is a sign of a bad harvest.
This superstition was amply borue out this summer (1903). Herons abounded in this
district in numbers larger than ever seen. The harvest has been a complete failure, and
natives are receiving Government aid. Z. K. G. B.

7. A white ov is slaughtered on declaration of war. It is stabbed by a woman in
Zululand, and the longer it is in dying the more fortunate the portent. [See Rider
Haggnrd's \ery accurate Nada the Lily.~\ Basutos slaughter a pure black ox iu the
same way.

12. The fat of a lion, poison fangs and gall bladder of a python, will ensure
(1) courage ; (2) power to cure snake-bite to a layman, i.e., other than a witch doctor.
A python killed ou the place fetched £16 for "muti," — medicine.

15. Certain snakes carry the souls of great fighters, but the belief is local and the
snake varies with locality. A small non-poisonous snake called Mabibini carries the
souls of women and children. Z. K.

16. Certain powerful witch doctors are believed to have the power to consign the
spirit of a person to the body and keeping of the iguana, ant eater, and python, but these
are specialists aud rare. I was troubled by an astute Zulu who surreptitiously told drink
to my Kafirs. Having twice failed to secure a conviction before a magistrate, 1 was
advised to send for a Basuto witch doctor, then enjoying great repute. He asked for the
moucha or skin worn round the loins by the Zulu, and was proceeding with his incanta-

[ 181 ]

Ko. 115.] MAN. [1904.

tions when the Zulu bolted. He has not dared to enter the infected zone since. He was
to have been turned into an iguana, the most objectionable form of obsession. I cannot
find out whether the death of the iguana kills the victim ; some say yea, others, equal
authorities, nay.

I have devoted considerable effort to solving the question, how does a man become
a wizard and find that, like the poet, he is born, not made. Among the Natal Kafirs we
have a sort of hereditary cult, but they do not stand high in native estimate. The craft
is apparently an open one, and its most successful representatives are exemplars of the
doctrine of the survival of the fittest. Like other professors they have their vogue, and
a witch doctor with a great reputation does not confine himself to one tribe or kraal.
He will b« called in to the exclusion of the tribal doctor on the strength of his repute,
and one I know travels from Zululand to the mines at Johannesburg, Kimbcrley, and
Jagersfonlein. I quite recently cashed a cheque for him for £130, which represented
his fee and expenses for visiting a wealthy native at Johannesburg to throw the bones
to ascertain whether an impending law suit should be proceeded with.

Witch doctors are generally specialists in one branch only — witchcraft or medicine —
rarely both. General practice is confined to the small fry with merely local reputation.
Of their knowledge of the use of certain herbs I could write much, and am strongly of
opinion that a systematic effort should be made by qualified experts to discover the
properties of some of them, which are so marvellously efficacious that it is simply idle to
pooh-pooh them. No European treatment for snake-bite, for instance, is as good as
theirs, and Englishman though I am, and brought up in a medical family, I would rather
ride fifty milea to be treated for a puff-adder bite by a certain witch doctor than go ten to
the district surgeon. I have twice been under treatment by them for bite, and though
the physic is nauseous, and I was not too eager to know of what it consisted, I was free
from pain in two and three days respectively. Persons similarly bitten and treated by
English methods suffer agouie* for weeks. Dysentery and gravel or stone iu bladder they
treat with marvellous results. Their surgery is, however, the crudest butchery and
often fatal.

But the most interesting phase of the doctor is his witchcraft. I have studied him
much and often been impressed. I have arrived at the following conclusions, which I
am satisfied I could prove to the satisfaction of competent observers : —

1. That the successful wizard is always intellectually the strougest man in the tribe.

2. That he has perfect faith in his power ; that is, I do not believe he is a conscious
charlatan.

3. That he possesses mesmeric power ; and

4. That many of his divinations are the result of the unconscious transference, from
the mind of the subject to his, of the answer sought.

One case out of several that have come within my own knowledge will illustrate
this telepathic suggestion of mine.

I was engaged in studying some ancient Bushmen's paintiugs iu a cave on my place.
The cave had a projecting roof in the form of an isosceles or equilateral triangle. While
so engaged my dogs discovered some valuable otter and tiger cat skins, which I recognised
as part of a collection of my own. I suspected our post boy, but said no word of the
matter. Several other articles having disappeared at various times, I sent for a big witch
doctor to smell out the culprit, giving several days' notice of my iuteution in the hope
that the thief would reveal himself by disappearing. I collected some sixty natives,
including the suspect, and was careful to stand behind the doctor so that no unconscious
sign on my part should reveal my thoughts. I did not tell him any of the circumstances
beyond that I had a thief ou the farm and wished to fiud him. He went through the
customary grotesque gesticulation, chanting and drawiug figures ou the ground with his
stick. After a time he began drawiug triangles, then boldly declared that the stolen

[ 182 "J

1904.] MAN. [Nos. 115-116.

articles were bidden in a cave, and after several dashes at the suspect, indicated him as
the thief. Later the real thief confessed. He had sold some skins and had hidden the
others where I found them. My suspect was entirely innocent, but the witch read my
thoughts and pictured the cave as I was seeing it during his performance.

Have we not here an explanation of the fact that in the smelling out of criminals
the witch doctor almost invariably spots the person suspected by the chief ?

Re witch doctor, I have not been able to find whether any ceremony prefaces
initiation, but I believe not. A wizard qualifies by his success, aud any member of a
tribe may aspire to witch doctorship.

17. Among the Natal Kafirs certain families are supposed to be always unfortunate
with certain animals, as sheep, goats, horses, cows, oxen, &c. One man will avoid
keeping goats or sheep. Another has as little to do as possible with oxen. One
Kafir's family in this district has eschewed horses for generations, hiring or borrowing
oue when a journey has to be performed and generally paving at an enhanced rate to
cover the supposed risk. I have not met cases of the converse where special fortune
attaches to certain animals.

19, 20, 21. Belief in a creature called Togolosh, or Togolash, is universal. It is
invisible to men but visible to women, and infants. At irregular periods it haunts reedy
springs and water holes, waiting for young women whom it ravishes. It is described as
being a well-developed black man with long hair to the waist, but is never seen below
the knees. This belief is so emphatic that parents will accept it in explanation of a
girl being enceinte^ and the usual penalties for unchastity are withheld from a girl
pleading Togolosh. I have heard native women relating their experience in the most
matter-of-fact manner, and my head man, a very intelligent Natal Kafir, assures me that
he quite believes in the existence of the Togolosh, and in the event of one of his
daughters pleading it he would accept the assurance. No special virtue appears to
attach to the offspring of the Togolosh, and his operations are rapidly being relegated to
the regions of the great rivers. N. W. THOMAS.

REVIEWS.
Australia, South-East. Howitt.

The Xative Tribes of South-East Australia. By A. W. Howitt, D.Sc. A4f\
London : Macmillan & Co., 1904. Pp. xix + 819. 23 X 15 cm. Price 21*. I ID

Before reviewing Dr. Howitt's Native Tribes of South-East Australia it is uatural
and seemly to congratulate him on the accomplishment of his great work. Duriug forty
years he has been busy in collecting the fragments of customary laws and beliefs among
tribes of which many have succumbed to the ferocity, and the almost equally fatal
goodwill, of the iuvadiug European. Opium is the latest means of exterminating the
Queensland black—" Belgian newspapers will please copy " when we wax virtuous
over Belgian misdeeds on the Congo. Dr. Howitt has written not from his own
kuowledge alone ; he has stirred up an army of correspondents who have added each
his mite. During some thirty years of controversy Dr. Howitt has not written one
discourteous word, but has displayed a perfect candour and openness of mind. He
knows the value of a docta ignorantia, and, though firm in his opinions on one or two
obscure aud debited poiuts, is not disposed, on others, even to hazard an hypothesis.
By necessity Dr. Howitt's work differs in character from that of Messrs. Spender and
Gillen. They write from personal observation of tribes still little contaminated by
European contact. He speaks on the authority of observers among tribes contaminated,
or all but extinct or quite vanished, in several cases, as well as on the basis of his own
studies. We cannot precisely estimate the value of evidence from many observers,
as we do not even know how far they were masters of the various languages. In some
cases, as in that of Mr. Gasou among the Dieri, Dr. Howitt is able to rectify earlier

t 183 1

No. 116.] MAN. [1904,

statements by more recent research. Much of what he has to say is already familiar to
readers of his own and of Dr. Fison's Kamilaroi and Kurnai, and contributions to the
Journal of the Anthropological Institute and other learned periodicals.

On the first chapter, " The Origin of the Aborigines," I need not comment ; his-
"tentative hypothesis" will be found on pages 32, 33. His definition of a (local)
" tribe " is already accepted. Iu my opinion, to write (page 42) that the social divisions
"are denoted by class names, or totems, and more frequently by both class names and
totems," is rather premature before " class names " and " totems " have been defined.
The terminology used runs thus : " Class names " denote the two primary exogamous
moieties of a tribe, often styled " phratries," a harmless term as long as it is understood.
"Sub-classes" denote the four or eight exogamous divisions (peculiar, I think, to
Australia), which some writers call "matrimonial claftses," as distinguished from
"phratries," or "primary exogamous moieties." Under "totems" are included, by
Dr. Howitt, not only the hereditary exogamous kins, usually of plant or animal name,
but the personal non-hereditary, non-exogamous plant, animal, or other object of the
individual ausweriug to the American naguaU or manitu. We also hear of non-
exogamous " sub-totems," of " mortuary totems," and so forth. Local groups within
a tribe of female reckoning of descent are styled "hordes," in a tribe with male
reckoning are termed " elans." As both " horde " and " clan " are used in other seuses,
especially by American students, I think it would be simpler to call a local group in a
tribe " a local group," leaving " clans " and " hordes " out of the story.

Whether to commend or dispraise the scientific caution of Dr. Howitt in presenting
no theory of the origin of totemism, hereditary and exogamous, or of the animal aud other
names which mark the "classes" often; the "sub-classes" sometimes (page 111) ; the
exogamous totem kins almost always ; I am uucertaiu. I could wish that he had
offered a list of the names of " classes " and " sub-classes," with the translations of these
names, where they are known. Certainly the " classes " often bear animal names ;
indeed, they do so iu almost every case where their meaning is ascertained. Let us
take the Gouruditch-Mara tribe (pages 124, 125, 250). Mr. Stable describes their
organisation thus : —

Classes. Totems. Sub-totems.

Krokitch. White cockatoo. Five.

Kaputch. Black cockatoo. Eight.

Now, here the two "class" names — Krokitch and Kaputch — mean white aud black
cockatoo, which are given in English as " totems." This is plain from the report of
Mr. Dawson, speaking of " the tribes which are to the east of the Gouruditch-Mara,
and to which the latter obviously belongs." Mr. Dawson gives here no "classes," but
offers five "totems," of which the first, Kuurokcetch (long-billed cockatoo), is clearly
Krokitehy while the third, Kappatch (Bauksian cockatoo), is as certainly Kaputch,
Here, then, we have two species of cockatoo, which are, in fact, two "class"
("phratry") names, rather than names of totems in the phratries. This, in Mr.
Dawson's account, is quite clear. The myth says that the male ancestor of the tribe
was a long-billed cockatoo, whose wife was a Banksian cockatoo. Dr. Howitt adds,
"Their sons and daughters belonged to the class of their mother." But whence came
the three totems — pelican, boa snake, and quail ? Dr. Howitt does not here say ;
Mr. Dawson does. The totems came iu through exogamous marriages made by the
cockatoos.

It is clear from other information (page 125) that two cockatoo-named "classes"
(phratries), with animal -named totem kins in their " classes," are common. Mr. Stiible's
account, we repeat, gives two "classes" with untranslated names, aud gives the
translations of their two names as " totems " !

[ 184 ]

1904.] MAN. [No. lift

This is unsatisfactory. We need, of all things, a thorough linguistic examination
of the meanings of the names of " classes " and " sub-classes." At present, when
translated, they seem usually, as in the case of totems, to be named after animals.

There must be some reason at the back of the marriage laws in which " classes,"
exogamous, often of auimal name, contain " totems,' 1 exogamous, usually of plant or
animal name ; while in more advanced tribes " sub-classes," exogamous — occasionally
of animal names, in other cases of names of unknown meauing — exist. I endeavour to
disengage Dr. Howitt's theory of these facts, as far as he has a theory.

First in time came (page 89) " the division of the people of the tribe into two
classes," exogamous. Why or how was the division made? Two legends (Dieri,
Wuranjerri) agree that " the division of the tribe was made with intent to regulate the
relation of the sexes." But, if the relation of the sexes were previously quite
unregulated, why in the world should anyone want to regulate thorn, or how could
anyone even dream that they needed regulation by tribal authority ?

Again, if two myths say that the division of the tribes was made for the purpose
of sexual regulation, plenty of other myths give totally different accounts of the whole
affair, as Dr. Howitt well knows. Dieri myth (page 481) says that originally people
married within their totems, " this occasioned great confusion, aud sexual disorder
4i became predominant." The elders, therefore, decreed that totems should be exoga-
mous. But, of cour3e, " disorder " could only be perceived by persons accustomed to
"order," that is, to totemistic exogamy. Such myths are purely aetiological. We
have not advanced one step, so far.

Again (page 143), Dr. Howitt asks "how the two exogamous class divisions
" originated ?" He thinks that it was "by the division of an original whole, which I
" have referred to as the Uudivided Commune." But why was the Undivided divided ?
Well (pages 133, 134), it was not Undivided, or, uot for long. Economic conditions-
and "individual likes aud dislikes," says our author, kepi perpetually breaking up the
the Undivided Commune "into two or more Communes, of the same character." We
entirely agree, so far, but we add that, in such small groups, the " likes and dislikes" —
love and jealousy — would inevitably regulate in some degree sexual relations, even if
hitherto, they had been quite unregulated. This appears undeniable. Dr. Howitt.
however, supposes that all these little new " communes " would meet, " at certain
" gatherings . . . or on great ceremonial occasions," aud then would behave
"as when the Lake Eyre tribes reunite" — that is, licentiously (page 174). But how
can we take it for granted that the primeval groups, perhaps hostile, did meet for
" great ceremonies " ? If they did, is the idea that they then and there established,,
purposefully, the two " classes " which prevent union of brothers aud sisters uterine?
What harm did they see in such uuious, uuless the jealousy of sires had already
prohibited them in the tiny "Communes"? But why were animal names so ofteu
given to the "classes"? Whence, moreover, and why, came the exogamous totem
kins within the " classes " ? I do not answer the seventeen lines of criticism which
Dr. Howitt bestows on my own theory of the origiu of totems, as given by me in Social
Origins, but the nature of my reply is obvious.

Dr. Howitt agrees with Messrs. Spencer and Gillen, that totem groups existed, before
exogamy, for magical purposes, but he does not know " how it was that men assumed
" the names of objects, which, in fact, must have been the commencement of totemism "
(page 153). He guesses that a man may have dreamed that he was a plant or beast,
and so may have "developed the idea of relationship with animals, or even with plants "
(page 1.54). Then how did the dream-plant or animal come to descend in the female
line, and why docs the object mark the exogamous division ? Were the supposed
pre-existing nou-exogamous totem groups simply commanded to be exogamous at
the given momeut when the tribe, on "a great ceremonial occasion," divided itself

[ 185 ]

Hot. 116-117.] MAN. [1904.

into the two " classes," one set of totems being placed id one class, the other set in
the other ?

These are natural questions, bnt I shall ask no more out of a long list which occurs
to the inquiring mind. One may express, however, some doubts as to whether one
totem kin in a "class" is ever restricted to marriage with just one totem kin in the
other class. Messrs. Spencer and Gillen, in their new work, add nothing to the
confessedly vague information given as to this point of Urabunua law in their previous
volume. Why the Urabunna facts cannot be ascertained, when intelligence on matters
apparently much more esoteric is abundant, one does not know. A Mr. Boultbee
(page 194) is responsible for the statemeut that a one-totem to one-totem restriction
exists in tribes with the Mukwara-Kilpara " classes." One suspects some confusion here,
and, of course, all statements made long ago, about tribes now extinct, are of limited
value as evidence.

A point, among many others, which I hive often felt to be perplexing is this :
tribes (A) with no "sub-classes," but merely with "classes," totems, and female reckoning,
do not permit father and daughter marriage, though their " classes " do not prevent it.
Tribes (B), more advanced, have " sub-classes," of which — as Mr. J. G. Frazer points
out to Dr. Howitt — " the effect is to prevent the marriage of parents with children."
Now, how come tribes (A) to prevent such unions without any machinery of " sub-
classes," while tribes (B) appear to have found that machinery necessary ? Is it not
also very curious (page 500) that (as I understand Dr. Howitt) the tribes most advanced
socially do not, as a rule, believe in " an anthropomorphic supernatural being, who lives
" in the sky, and is supposed to have some kind of influence on the morals of the
" natives," while the less socially advanced tribes often " incline to think there is a
" God, or something very like one," to quote Clough. If I do not misapprehend
Dr. Howitt, we are here in perfect agreement, and I can give examples of the Baiame
belief as early as 1829-31, fifteen years earlier than Mr. Manuing's account of 1844-45,
and prior to missionary influence in the district (pages 501, 502).

In my space I can only "scratch with a hoe " at the vast and fertile field of
Dr. Howitt's labours. To criticise his work thoroughly demands a separate treatise,
and I have already lifted up my voice against Dr. Howitt's theory that the " Pirraru "
custom is a survival of, or a proof of, "Group Marriage" in the past. To this and
other topics I hope to return in a new work now in hand. One must condole with
Dr Howitt and his readers on a sadly inadequate index to his book. With some of his
opinions I am constrained to disagree, but his services to science are such that we
may doubt whether without his long and exemplary labours, and without his example,
anthropology would have more thau an inkling of the whole interesting subject of
Australian society, custom, aud belief. ANDREW LANG.

Anthropology. Oels.

Science dc r Homme ct Methode antJiropologir/ue. Par Alphouse Cels. Paris "MTP
and Brussels, 1904. 21 x 14 cm. Francs 7.50. Ill

This book takes a very comprehensive view of the science of man. " All facts,"
says M. Cols, " concerning man in himself, or in relation to his environment, belong to
" the domain of anthropology." He elaborates this idea by subdividing the facts
concerning man into (1) those relating to the nature of man, and (2) those relating
to the life of man. Each of these sub-divisions are again sub-divided into three,
namely, (a) those relating to the existence of man as a unity or individual, (/3) those
relating to the existence of man as a duality or as body and mind, aud (y) those relating
to the existence of man as a harmony, or as a union of the two sexes for the reproduction
of the species.

[ 186 J

1904.] MAN. [Nos. 117-118.

This scheme apparently includes the study of the anatomy of man, the physiology
of man, and the psychology of man in himself, and also in relation to his environment.
To become an expert in all the sciences appears to be beyond the capacity of any single
individual, and therefore no single individual can possibly become an anthropologist, in
the sense in which the term is understood by M. Cels. There is, however, a field open
for a scientist who while he abandons the detailed study of these sciences to specialists,
takes their results and establishes correlations between them. For example, Earl
Pearson has shown that correlations exist between the bodily and mental characters
of man, and as this field is not strictly speaking included in either auatomy or
psychology, it may be properly left to the anthropologist. But there must always be a
great deal of overlapping. About one half of M. Cels' book is devoted to the exposition
of anthropological method. This part of the book might with advantage have been
omitted, and the reader referred to any standard text-book on logic. M. Cels' idea of
anthropological method is that there is nothing special in it, but that it is merely the
general logical method by which the truths of all sciences are arrived at. He appears
to be opposed to measurement especially as applied to the psychological characters of
man. He says, " The exclusive partisans of so-called experimental psychology are.
4i really bent on the pursuit of chimeras." Considering that almost every science when
it has advanced beyond its infancy makes use of measurement to make observation more
precise, we must conclude that M. Cels 1 ideas of anthropology are still infantile. It is
only when we can apply measurement to the physiology and to the psychology of
man with the same precision as we now do to his anatomy that anthropology will
become an exact science, and we shall know the true laws of the nature and life of man,
and their relations to his environment. Statistical analysis has now been sufficiently
developed to enable us to arrive at simple and reliable conclusions from our observations.

J. G.

German Race. Driesmans.

Die Kulturgeschichte der Ras s en-ins tinkten. II. Die Wahlverwandtschaften HAQ
der deutschen Blutmischung. By Heinrich Driesmans. Leipzig : Diederichs, I 10
1901. Pp. xii + 208. 22 x 14 cm. Price 4 marks (cloth, 5 marks).

The first volume of this work, Das Keltentum in der Europaischen Blutmischung y
dealt with the part, which the Kelts — as the author conceives them — have taken, in the
political and social development of the peoples of the modern world. The present
instalment introduces us to the German*, by whom Dr. Driesmans understands the tall,
fair, blue-eyed element in the population of modern Germany ; and this, in common with
mauy of his countrymen, he regards as the long-lost Aryan race and also as the supreme
type of Homo sapiens hitherto. From expressions which occur here and there in the book
we may, perhaps, expect presently a third section, which shall deal equally outspokenly
with the Slav ; though this third Haupt-rasse comes in, already, for fairly detailed
criticism in the present volume.

To a certain exteut Dr. Driesmaus belongs 'to the school of speculative anthro-
pology represented by Gobiueau aud Lapouge, and in Germauy by Seeck and Ammon ;
with closest affinity with the last-named. But the cruder New-Iranian view which
pictured the history of Europe as a crusade of the Powers of Light — represented by the
blessed bl >ndes — against the Powers of Darkuess iu the shape of bold, bad brunettes, gives
place here (in part) to the less uncompromising doctrine, that cultural advances themselves
arise from the clash of races ; that the character of the culture elicited depends very
largely upon the kiud of mongrels who result from such contact ; and that it is only such
mongrels who are capable of appreciating, and propagating inpartibus, the culture already
attaiued by their respective progenitors. For which crumb of comfort (explaining, as it

t 187 ]

Bios. 118-119.] MAN. [1904.

doe*, bow we others come to be as cultured as we are) the mongrel qvi parle Is duly
grateful to Dr. Driesmans.

To return to the Germans, however ; it was the ethnologische Eiszeit of the
Reformation-period apparently which roused them from psychological pithecanthropism,
and superseded, for example, wood-engraving by copperplate, Diirer by Goethe, and
comparative mental monotony by a fine jumble of Slavo-Germans like Lessing, Kelto-
Germans like Goethe, and Kern-Germans — the real genuine article, neither east nor
west of the Ell>e — like Schiller; with a W elt mac hts tell ung and all complete, and very
surprising cro*s-di visions in the field of natural science. Goethe's theory of colour, for
instance, proves him echt deutsch ; Newton's stamps him as a mere Kelt ; and the latter-day
neglect of Goethe's theory in Germany augurs sad things for the Lebensanschauung of the
Fatherland. Virchow, conversely, owed to his Slav ancestry his inability to subscril»e
to Germanic Darwinismus : though it would be news to us if Darwin were either blonde
or liable to suicidal mania (which things are Merkmale of Germanic Man) ; but, perhaps,
Darwin had an illegitimc Kopf.

From these illustrations of Dr. Driesmans' conclusions and arguments, taken

!omewhat at random from his analysis of the Deutsche Blutmischung % it will be seen
hat his essay covers wide ground, advances novel and suggestive theories, and contains
much instructive and entertainiug matter. And as it will be clear from these instances
how weighty a matter is true self-knowledge, in orderiuga natiou's future, let us conclude
by commending to all whom it may concern, his speculation on the Jesuitical tendency
of trousers ; and to English readers in particular those sections of Das fVeibwesen which
contain his observations ou the Englandcrin. Experiment towards more systematic
Blutmischnng lie desiderates, but does not see his way to recommeud. J. L. M.

Norse Mythology. Kermode.

Traces of the Xorse Mythology in the Isle of Man. By P. M. C. Kermode. 44Q
London: Bemrose, 1904. 8vo. Pp. 30, with ten plates. 22x14 cm. I |\l
Price 2s. 6rf.

The local essayist is usually a very harmless person ; at the worst he deals out
incomplete or inaccurate information to his fellows on subjects which would otherwise
not come under their keu. But if he publishes his remarks, he will, if he is well
advised, assign to the printing press no higher office than the delectation of his, let us
hope numerous, friends. For the sake of his own feelings he should not ask a wider
circle to express an opinion on his work.

In the booklet before us Mr. Kermode does useful work in publishing the illustrations,
though some of them were figured some fifteen years ago, if we are not mistaken, on
sheets distributed by the Disney Professor for his Cambridge lectures. The author's
knowledge is, however, hardly equal to the task of elucidation ; indeed, it may be
doubted if elucidation is possible in many cases.

The work opens with an epitome of Norse mythology, the materials for which might
with advantage have been drawn from a modern German handbook. We read, for
example, that the five last days of the week are named after Scandinavian gods ; it
makes one curious to know what Saturday is called in the Isle of Man.

On the folklore side the book is decidedly weak. Au attempt, is made to explain
the world-wide superstition as to nail cuttings by a reference to Ragnarok and Loki's
ship. The remarks on midsummer fires are quite inadequate, aud the author, as he
mem ions Grimm as one of his authorities, need hardly have attributed to the editors of
the ('. P. Borcale Grimm's remark (D. M. 4 , III., 78) about Balder's funeral pyre.

In interpreting the plates the author regards many of the human faces seen in
profile as intended for bird heads. As a matter of fact they are simply a primitive type
of portrait ; an analogous modern example may he seen in a Welsh collier's sketch of

[ 188 1

1904.] MAN. [Nos. 119-122.

Pwca, figured in Wirt Sikes' British Qoblins, p. 21. There is a lack of firmness in
the treatment sometimes ; on Plate III., for example, the fish is said to be pagan, on
Plate X. it is said to be undoubtedly Christian. The author hardly appreciates the
extent to which corruption in mythology and confusion in the sculptor's mind may go.

N. W. T.

Africa, East. Hinde.

Vocabularies of the Kamha and Kikuyu Languages of East Africa. By Af%f\
Hildegarde Hinde. Cambridge: University Press, 1904. Pp. 75. 19x12 cm. \£\j
Price 3*. net.

Officials and settlers in the East Africa Protectorate will be grateful to Mrs. Hinde
for the admirable vocabularies she has collected with such care and published in such au
attractive manner.

Travellers in Africa know the number of dialects met with and the trouble they
cause to the new comer. Here we have Swahili, the key to the trade language, and
three Kamba dialects (Kumba, Ulu dialect, Nganvawa dialect). The Kikuyu dialect
giveu is that spoken in the Jogowini district.

Although Mrs. Hiude give* the conjugation of one verb as an example, she wisely
omits the grammar, for the construction of the Bantu group of languages is similar to
that of Swahili and everyone must learn it.

This book should be in the hands of all travelling or settling in the regions where
these dialects are spoken. R. W. F.

Africa, West. "Actinus."

Camera Pictures on the Gold Coast. By " Actinus." London : Kleinmann Af%A
(1904). 39 X 30 cm. Price 21*. 1^1

To anyone, who has actually been to the West Coast of Africa, these photographs
of the Gold Coast people bring back pleasing memories and are of considerable interest.
The photograph of the surf-beaten shore is an excellent representation of a West
African beach anywhere between Liberia and Lagos, while the picture showing a
beach covered with cargo, just landed, and crowded with people — both labourers and
owuers looking after their stuff and capping alt the little all-important native custom's
officer shouting his orders as he stands on a box — is most vivid and true. The girl
fishing by a beautiful tropical river is a picture that also deserves special mention, and
the portrait of ex- King Prempeh has an interest all its own.

The gentleman who took these photographs is certainly to be congratulated on his
undoubtedly successful results, which are admirably reproduced in collotype.

E. F. M.

Madagascar. Matthews.

Thirty Years in Madagascar. By the Rev. T. T. Matthews, of the London <c%f%
Missionary Society. With sixty-two illustrations from photographs and sketches. \LL
London : The Religious Tract Society, 1904. Pp. xi + 384. 22 x 14 cm. Price 6s.
In this book the author, naturally enough, confines himself almost entirely to an
account of the work of the London Missionary Society in Madagascar. Consequently
the reader must not expect very much anthropological matter, although he will find
some interesting details about manners and customs scattered about among the pages of
the book. The author, moreover, is certainly not an anthropologist, and anything that
he has to say about the natives, before they came under the influence of his mission,
must be read with some cautiou, as it is obviously biased by his point of view. Still,
the few anthropological facts he gives are of considerable interest, as, apart from papers
in various scientific journals, very little seems to have beeu written about the Madagascan
people.

[ i»9 3

Nos. 122-123.] MAN. [1904.

Id his first chapter Mr. Matthews gives a short account of the history of the
inhabitants of the island. He does not attempt to deal with the controversy as to the
origin of the people, but contents himself with the statement that they are " allied to
the South Sea Islanders." He, moreover, considers that the Island was known to the
Jews owing to the existence of analogous customs, and thinks that the fact that Ophir
is supposed to have been situated on the east coast of Africa makes " it easy to account
" for the resemblance between certain Malagasy and Jewish customs." This analogy
once led auother writer to claim a Jewish origin for the Malagasy. But granted that
Ophir is in Africa — either in Rhodesia or on the east coast — and that Solomon and
Hiram's sailors did touch at Madagascar, it still seems rather dangerous to claim that to
these visits is due the presence of analogies to Jewish customs.

In other parts of his book the author briefly refers to marriage and burial customs,
and to charms and superstitions. It appears to be the custom not to bury the body
until at least a week after death, and the corpse, preparatory to burial, is rolled in "a
" silk lamba, while all clothes, dresses, and jewellery belougiug to the deceased are
" placed in the tomb." Money, cut up to the size of broken rice, is placed in the
corpse's mouth, and, if he had been fond of strong drink, tubs of this are put in the
tomb with him. The ceremony, as usual, ended in a feast.

The book is well illustrated, in most cases by photographs. A few of these are of
anthropological interest, notably the group of Malagasy meu and the group of womeu,
showing the different way of dressing the hair. There is also a photograph of a war
dance, but this is too small to be of any great value, although it is distinctly interesting.

H. S. K.

Switzerland. Heierli.

Urgeschichte der Schweiz. By Jakob Heierli. Zurich : Miiller, 1901. 4I)Q
25 X 17 cm. Pp. xvi + 452, with 4 plates and 423 illustrations in the text. I£w
Price 14 fcs. (or iu cloth, 16 fcs.).

This belated notice of an admirable handbook is not intended to discuss the
numerous questions of prehistoric archeology which it raises, but only to introduce to
British studeuts aud tourists a very serviceable summary of a series of archaeological
discoveries which has in great part become classical. Few countries have surpassed
Switzerland in the abundance aud variety of their prehistoric remains, and fewer still
have equalled it in the diligence and method with which its archaeologists have explored
and interpreted them. Dr. Heierli, who lectures on prehistoric subjects iu the university
and the Federal Polytechnic at Zurich — fancy an English polytechnic with a lecturer
on archaeology ! — holds a high place iu the school of students created by Ferdinand
Keller and his contemporaries, and has already attempted a similar survey iu his
Uebersicht iiber die Urgeschichte der Schweiz, which appeared in 189-1. The present
volume revises and expauds his earlier work, aud is intended, among other things, as a
companion to the Archaeological Survey Maps of Switzerland. These are in course of
publication, and contain in full the detailed statistics on which this more popular
summary is based. With this object the principal settlements and other sites of each
period are described separately, with a note of the date of their discovery, and of
the main contribution which each makes to our knowledge ; and the result is a text
book on a peculiarly suggestive and instructive plan. It is further very well illus-
trated, chiefly from the collections of the great Zurich Museum, and it has a capital
iudex. For teaching purposes a select bibliography would be a valuable addition ; in the
book as it stands, only the names of the authorities are given, and only rarely even the
title of their publications. J. L. M.

[ 1M 1

1904.] MAN. [No. 124.

PROCEEDINGS OF SOCIETIES.
Proceedings. Congress of Americanists.

The Fourteenth International Congress of Americanists. Stuttgart, August 4f%M
18-23, 1904. IZt 1

The Fourteenth International Congress of Americanists was held at Stuttgart from
18th to the 23rd August, 1904. The first sitting of the Congress was opened by his
Majesty the King of Wiirttemberg and was attended by 300 members, including delegates
from learned societies in every part of the world. The inaugural address was delivered
by M. Hamy, president of the Thirteenth Congress, who embraced the opportunity
afforded by the centenary of Alexander von Humboldt's return to Europe to give an
interesting and scholarly discourse upon the life and work of the celebrated explorer
and of his colleague de Boupland. A medal with the portraits of von Humboldt and
de Bonpland was presented to each member of the Congress by the Geographical Society
of Stuttgart.

At the sittings, which proceeded under the presidency of Professor Dr. Karl von
den Steinen, the following papers were read in order : " Vergleichung der amerikanischen
und europaischen Juraformatiou," E. Fraas ; " Die Vorzeit des Menschen im aquatorialen
Audengebiet," Hans Meyer ; " Un nouveau chapitre de l'histoire des flibustiers des
Antilles," H. Froidevaux ; " Die Verbindungen Norwegens mit Gronland und Nord-
amerika ira Mittelalter und ihre Wiederaufuahme im 18 Jahrhundert," I. Nielsen;
"Ein Globus von Gemma Frisius," W. Ruge ; "War die maguetische Deklination yor
Kolumbus' erster Reise nacb Amerika (1492) tatsachlich unbekannt," A. Wolkenhauer ;
" Les Memoriales de Fray Toribio (' Motolinia *)," L. Lejeal ; " Die kartographische
Darstellung der Entdeckungen der Norman u en in Amerika," J.Fischer ; " Contributions
of American Archaeology to the Science of Man," W. H. Holmes ; " Der Urspruug der
Syphilis," I wan Bloch ; " The Megalithic Age in Peru," Clements R. Markham ;
*' Fouilles de la Mission scientitique francaise a Tiahuanaco," Comtede Crequi-Montfort ;
" Recherches arch£ologiques et ethnographiques en Bo) i vie, au Chili, et dans la
Republique Argentine," Comte de Cr6qui-Montfort ; u Les fouilles de la necropole
prehistorique de Calama," Comte de Crequi-Montfort ; " Thdvet, M6xicaniste," E. de
Jonghe ; ** Sitten und Gebriiuche der Pokonchi-Indianer," K. Sapper ; " Eiufluss der
sozialen Gliederung der Kwakiutl auf ihre Kultur," Franz Boas ; " Sonnenfeste der
Altmexikaner und der Moki," K. T. Preuss ; " Bemerkungen iiber die Reste der Indios
bravos im Westeu von Antioquia," Fritz Regel ; " Niiheres iiber die Ornamente der
Naturvolker Suriuams," L. C. van Panhuys ; " Die Kunst der Schiuguindianer," Herrm
Meyer ; ** Mitteilung iiber chilenische i Pintados '," A. Plagemann ; " Das Griinsteinidol
des Stuttgarter Museums," Ed. Seler ; " Die Altertiimer von Castillo de Teayo," Ed.
Seler ; " Eiu Kapitel aus der mcxikanischen Mythologie," W. Lehmann ; " Uber
asiatische und amerikanische Elemente in den Mythen der Koriaken," W. Jochelson ;
* 4 Religious Ideas of Primitive Man, from Chukchec material," W. Bogoras ; " Verbreitung
und Wanderung der Mythen siidamerikanischer Volker und ihre Beziehungen zu denen
Nordamerikas und der alten Welt," P. Ehrenreich ; u Europaische Marchen unter den
argentinischen Araukanern," R. Lehmann-Nitsche ; " A European Custom of Pagan
Times brought over to America (Hallowe'en)," L. C. van Panhuys ; " Eskimo Dialects
aud Migrations," W. Thalbitzer ; "The Indian Languages of the United States,"
Rev. C. W. Currier ; " Escritura general de America," Pablo Patron ; "Sur la langue
Tehuelche," M. de la Grasserie.

In addition to these papers, which will be published in full in the volume of the
Congress, a number of printed communications and volumes were laid upon the table.
Those presented to members were : " Archaologische Untersuchungen in Costarica," C. V.

[ 191 ]

Vos. 124-126.] MAN. [1904.

Hart man (Sonderabdruck aus "Globus," Bd. 85, Nr. 15) ; "Beitrage zur Ethnographie,
Linguistik und Entdeckungsgeschicbte Amerikas," Jbr. L. C. van Panhuys (Haag. 1904) ;
"The Chorotes Indians in the Bolivian Chaco," Eric von Rosen (Stockholm, 1904);
" Archaeological Researches on the Frontier of Argentina and Bolivia," Eric von Rosen
(.Stockholm, 1901) ; u Rapport sur une Mission scientifique en Amerique du Sod," De
Crequi Montfort et Sencchal de la Grange (Paris, 1904); "La premiere occupation
allemande du Venezuela au XVI. sieele," Jules Humbert (Paris, 1904) ; " Eiue alt-mexi-
kanische Steinfigur," H. Fischer (Sonderabdruck aus " Globus," Bd. LXXXV., Nr. 22) ;
"Archiv fur Anthropologic," Bd. III., Heft 1 (Braunschweig, 1904); "Globus,"
Bd. LXXXVI., Nr. 7 (Braunschweig, 1904).

In the intervals of their scientific labours the members of the Congress enjoyed the
most kind and generous hospitality which was everywhere extended to them by the
leading citizens and societies of Stuttgart. His Majesty the King of Wurttemberg
graciously entertained them on two occasions, and on their departure from beautiful
Swabia they were welcomed to Switzerland by the mayor and corporation of Schaflf-
hausen. D. R.-M.

Anthropological Institute. Huxley Lecture.

The Fifth Annual Huxley Memorial Lecture was held on Friday, 7th October, 4#>r
in the theatre of the Civil Service Commission, by kind permission of the First l&U
Commissioner of Works. The lecturer was Dr. J. Deuiker, President of the Anthro-
pological Society of Paris, aud an Houorary Fellow of the Anthropological Institute,
who gave an address on " Les Six Races composant la Population actuelle de TEurope,"
which was illustrated by maps and lanteru slides. At the close of his discourse a vote
of thanks was proposed by Mr. E. VV. Brabrook, and seconded by Professor Gowland,
after which the Huxley Memorial Medal of the Institute was presented to Dr. Deuiker
by the President.

London. Anthropological Institute.

Ordinary Meeting, Taesday, 8th November. Mr. H. Balfour, President, in jqa
the chair. The election of the following as Ordinary Fellows of the Institute l&D
was announced : — Mr. J. B. Andrews, Mr. G. B. J. Barham, Mr. E. M. Cooke,
Mr. R. E. Dennett, Mr. E. C. Duff, Mr. C. Lewis Edwards, Mr. T. Heath Joyce,
Mr. D. Lennox, M.D., Mr. J. Mackay, Major J. McCulloch, Captain C. W. J. Orr,
R.A., F.R.G.S., Mr. F. G. Parsons, M.D., Mr. L. D. Petrocochino, Major G. S. Rodou,
F.Z.S., Mr. C. L. Tempte, Mr. N. W. Thomas, M.A., and Mr. H. M. Thompson.

A paper, " Notes on the Philosophy of the Bavili," by Mr. R. E. Dennett, was read
by Mr. N. W. Thomas, after Mr. Dennett had made a few introductory remarks. The
paper was discussed by Professor Gowland, Mr. Atkinson, and the Presideut.

Dr. Garson exhibited a neolithic skull from the Orkneys and a skull from Persia.
The exhibit was discussed by the Treasurer and Mr. Lewis.

Ordinary Meeting, Tuesday, 22nd November. Mr. H. Balfour, President, in
the chair.

The election was announced of Mr. Harry Campbell, M.D., and Mr. C. T. Collyer,
F.R.G.S., as ordinary Fellows of the Institute.

Dr. E. Westermarck read a paper on " The Magic Origin of Moorish Design,"
illustrated by lantern slides.

Questions were asked by Mr. Lewis and Mr. Hutchinson, aud the Presideut
discussed the paper shortly-
Printed by Btrb AJ»d Bpottiswoode, His Majesty's Printers, East Harding Street, K.C.

MAN

SUPPLEMENTARY MATTER, 1904.

REVIEWS.

-Japan: Ethnology.

Koganei.

Ueber die Urbewohner von Jajxin. By I) A 4
Prof essor Koganei. Sonderabdruck aus £•*" ■
den Mittheilangen der Deatschen Gesell-
schaf t f iir Natur- und Volkerkunde Ostasiens.
Band ix. Teil 3. Tokyo : 1903.

This publication is an exhaustive review
of recent literature dealing with the pre-
historic ethnology of Japan, a subject to
which no one has made Bounder contributions
than Professor Koganei himself. The par-
ticular question dealt with is that of the
natural affinities of the race which in Japan
and the neighbouring islands has left so many
traces of its former presence. Those traces
consist of kitchen middens, pit-dwellings, and
stone implements, so that the period may be
referred to as the Stone Age (presumably
neolithic). Are the Stone Age inhabitants
of Japan to be identified with the Aino, or
not ? And if the latter supposition is correct,
with what race are they to be associated V

Professor Koganei considers, in the first
place, the view which holds that these early
inhabitants were anterior to the Aino, and
racially different from them. The chief ex-
ponent of this view is Professor Tsuboi,
whose extensive works hitherto available,
for the most part in Japanese only, are here
enumerated and criticised.

Upon grounds of physical anthropology,
of ethnology, and historical tradition, Tsuboi
differentiates the Aino from the earlier folk,
whom he seeks to identify with the Eskimo.

In this view he is supported by other
Japaaese authorities, viz., Yagi and Shirao-
nura, while he is stoutly opposed by Koganei
and Torii among Japanese writers. Koganei
criticises the arguments of Tsuboi in detail,
and seems to confute them satisfactorily. He
then reviews more briefly the opinions of
western writers, such as Batchelor, Snow,
Laufer, r. Siebold and Landor, and is able
to range their opinions on one side or other
of those already taken up.

Professor Koganei admits freely that
while in respect of physical anthropology
there is not much evidence to enable one to
arrive at a decision, yet in respect of diet, in
the use of metal instruments rather than
stone, and of metal or bark vessels rather

than those made of clay, the recent Ainu of
Yezo differs markedly from the men of the
Stone Age. But by a fortunate chance there
remain some northern islands still inhabited
by a dwindling community of Ainos, whose
customs afford just the missing link which
serves to connect the two. For the Ainos of
Shumshu and Poromoshiri visited by Torii
are found to have definite traditions of having
used stone implements, and of having quite
recently manufactured and used clay vessels.
So that on the positive side Professor Koganei
is able to present a perfectly consistent series
of arguments. The remainder of the publi-
cation consists chiefly in adverse criticism of
the arguments of those who differ in opinion
from the writer.

The foregoing is a brief account of a
paper hard to review, for it itself consists of
a series of abstracts. It may be pointed out
that there is much that is attractive in the
Eskimo theory of Professor Tsuboi, yet the
objections brought by Professor Koganei at
the present time seem to completely dispose
of it. The paper, as has been already re-
marked, contains a very complete biblio-
graphy, especially valuable for the references
to Japanese publications.

W. L. H. DUCKWORTH.

Archaeology. Hoernes.

Der Diluviiilc Mensch in Eurojxi. Von j»AO
Dr. Moriz Hoernes. Braunschweig : &U&
Fred. Yieweg und Sohn, 1903. Pp. xiv -f-
227. 27 X 18 cm.

This work, which is fully illustrated,
treats of the stages of civilisation in the
Earlier Stone Age. These the author regards
as being three in number, corresponding in
the main with the lower, middle, and upper
palaeolithic of Gabriel de Mortillet. Ho
brings, however, the stages of Chelles and
Le Moustier together, and thus constitutes
what he terms the Chelles-Mousterian or
lowest stage. His middle stage he terms the
Solutrean, and the upper the Magdalenian.
Transitional forms are, however, recognised.

The first part of the work is devoted to
a critical review of the discoveries made in
Western Europe, that is to say, in France
and neighbouring countries, while the second
part relates more exclusively to Middle Europe
193 ]

Nos. 202-204. J

MAN.

LJan. 1904.

in a narrower sense and especially to Austria-
Hungary. There also the three palaeolithic
stages adopted by Dr. Hoernes are found
to prevail, and the various discoveries, the
accounts of which are now for the first time
brought together, are set forth in greater
detail than those in the first part : it is
probably this second part of the work which
will generally be regarded as the roost
valuable.

Specimens more or less characteristic of
the Chelles - Mousterian stage are adduced
from Moravia, Croatia and Poland ; of Solu-
trean from Lower Austria, Bohemia, Moravia,
Hungary, Poland, and the Ukraine ; and of
Magdalenian from caverns in the same coun-
tries. Of any transition from palaeolithic to
neolithic times there is, according to the
author, not the slightest trace.

In an appendix are some interesting essays.
Among them may be mentioned those " On
" the Relations of the Palaeolithic Antiquities
44 of Egypt to those of Europe," u On the Spy
" and Neanderthal Races and kindred quos-
" tions," u On the Historical Bearings of
" Palaeolithic Art in Western Europe," and J
•'• On the Campignian and the Neolithic
" Immigration."

The illustrations with which the work
abounds are for the most part diagrammatic,
but not the less useful on that account.
Probably some of Dr. Hoernes's views may
prove open to criticism, but the object of
thin short notice is to call attention to a
work which all roust regard as a valuable
addition to the history of Early Man. J. E.

Physical Anthropology. Daffher.

Das Wai'hstum ties Me/itchen : Anthro- |%AQ
pologisrhe Studie. Von Franz Daffner. fcUu
Second edition. Leipzig, 190*2.

This is a new edition of a book which
Dr. Daffner (who no longer spells his name
Daffnfr) first issued in J 897. It was then a
small volume of 129 pages ; it now extends to
475 pages. The headings of the main sections
remain, however, the same, except that a new
one is added, entitled, "Growth of the Face.''
The author begins with a consideration of the
facts of growth and development of the
embryo, a discussion of pregnancy, and an
elaborate description of the new-born infant,
passing on to the evolution of the teeth and
the manifestations of puberty ; he then pro-
ceeds to deal with the proportions of the
body as a whole and of its various part'*.

The book still remains without either
preface or index. The additions are due

[ 194

more to quotations from the literature of
the subject and a fresh discussion of morpho-
logical and biological points than to an in-
crease of the original data brought forward,
and these data still suffer from being pre-
sented in too summary a fashion, with no
information concerning method and material.
The author possesses an extensive knowledge
of the literature of his subject, more especially
the not very recent literature, but his infor-
mation is often very incomplete ; thus he
regards telegony as an established and un-
questionable fact, and in minor matters (such
as the relative size of the incisors in men
and women) his conclusions are vitiated by
ignorance of the literature. The reader feels
that a well-informed anatomist has poured
into this volume in a copious and somewhat
random fashion the note-books of a life-time.
The result is a volume that is both instructive
and interesting, but it is by no means a
model, and cannot b? recommended as a
handbook. HAVELOCK ELLIS.

Peru. Baessler : Keane.

Ancient Peruvian Art. By Arthur f*g*m
Baessler. Translated by A. H. Keane. &Ut
Part I. London : Asher & Co. 51 x 37 cm.
11 Plates. Price 30*.

In this work, which is to be complete
in fifteen parts, the author produces, with
illustrations and descriptive text, the more
remarkable objects in his collection in the
Berlin Museum fa r Vol kerktt tide.

The most important feature of a work of
this description is constituted, of course, by
the plates, which in the present case are admir-
able ; three of them are in colours, the rest
in monochrome, and it is noticeable with
regard to the latter that the author has
reverted to the sketch as a means of repro-
duction and left the camera severely alone.
This enables the patterns and scenes on
vessels to be depicted in projection. The
coloured plates are particularly successful,
showing several fine examples of feather
mosaic, one of which, a heimet with four
peaks from Pachacamac (PI. 147, Fig. 408), is
further illustrated by a beautiful little head
of brown clay from the same locality, painted
in vivid colours (PL 153, Fig. 421), which
appears to be wearing a cap of similar form.
Plato 39 is worth mention as exhibiting a
series illustrative of coca chewing, consisting
of a relief, a pottery figure, and several lime
boxes. Plate 168 (in colours) shows a
remarkable kneeling figure cut out of " very
light wood" (an ambiguous term) and orna-
J

Jan. 1904.]

MAN.

[Nos. 204-206.

merited with inlay of mother-of-pearl and
shells, cut in the shape of fish, circles, rect-
angles, &c. The only fault to be found is
with the method of publication ; the portfolio
contains plates chosen apparently at random
from every section of the completed work,
viz., ;U, 3G, 39, 74, 79, 80, 81, 147, 153, and
158. Consequently the reader is aggravated
by finding on the first page of text a figure
explained by a reference to a plate prior in
series but not yet published. Surely the
plates might have been published in their
proper sequence. T. A. J.

Pacific. Guppy.

Oh*er cation* of a Naturali*t in the j%f*r
Pacific bettcra 1896 and 1899. By ZU5
H. B. Guppy, M.B., F.R.S.E. Vol. I. Vanua
Levu, Fiji : a description of its physical and
geological characters. London : Macmiilan
& Co., Ltd., 191)3. 23 x 15 cm. Pp. xix + 392.
With five plates, two maps, and twenty
illustrations in ihe text. Price 15*.

After a visit to Hawaii, extending over
rather more than a year, Dr. Guppy pro-
ceeded to Fiji, where ho spent two years and
a quarter, occupied chiefly with the study of
plant distribution and with the examination
of the geological structure of the large island
of Vanua Lovu. Reserving his botanical
studies for another volume, he devotes the
present work to geological matters. To an
anthropologist the geology of the island, and
especially the petrography, which occupies a
large proportion of the volume, has little or
no direct interest. It is worth noting, how-
ever, that Dr. Guppy fails to find the slightest
evidence in favour of the view that the islands
of the Fijian #roup were ever in physical
union, much less formed part of a continental
area which has suffered disruption. On the
contrary, he regards Vanua Levu as a compo-
site island, which has been slowly built up,
during a long period of emergence from below
sea-level, by the aggregation of a number of
separate islands, formed of volcanic materials
derived from submarine eruptions. Probably
this movement has not yet altogether ceased.

Two polished stone axes from Vanua Levu
have been cut for microscopic study. These •
sections show that the rock is an aphanitic
basalt, with a little olivine, but the writer is
unable to refer it to any particular locality.
One of the axes is of light green colour and
the other blackish, the green hue of the
former being merely the result of superficial
weathering.

While Dr. Guppy is busy in this volume
with the rocks, the volcanoes and the hot

[ 195

springs of the island under description, he
finds time to put in a good word for the
natives. Both in Hawaii and in Fiji he lived
much among them, and in his preface grate •
fully acknowledges their hospitality. Dr.
Guppy suggests the formation of a " Fijian
Society " for the special investigation of the
islands, for the study of the people, and for
the advancement of science so far as it can be
aided by such researches. F. W. R.

Africa: Institutions. Hayford.

Gold Coast Native Institution*: with AAA
Thought* ujxrn a Healthy Imperial ^U©
Policy for the Gold Coast and Ashanti. By
Casely Hayford. London : Sweet and Max-
well, Limited, 1903. 22 x 14 cm. Price 15«.

Written by a native barrister, this is a
plea for the abandonment of the policy of
making the Gold Coast a colony, in favour
of the alternative policy of constituting it a
federation under the protection of the British
Government. With questions of Imperial
policy the Anthropological Institute has
nothing to do. But there can be no objec-
tion to appraising Mr. Hayford's work as a
powerful and eloquent argument, a careful
perusal whereof suggests that many things
may be done short of the drastic treatment
he proposes, to consult the wishes of the
natives, to govern in accordance with native
ideas, and thus to render the people more
contented and prosperous. There can be no
dispute that half of the difficulties on the
Gold Coast, as elsewhere, have arisen from
ignorance of native ideas and usages. The
Anthropological Institute has ere now made
its voice heard in favour of a thorough study
of African peoples by their British rulers.
The political, as well as the scientific, wisdom
of that policy will be brought home afresh
to everyone who looks into this book.

The picture given by the author of native
institutions is limited to such as are germane
to his theme, and of these he presents to us
only the best side. His account of the fetish
system, for example, is excessively vague and
meagre. In no other way could he succeed
in keeping out of sight some of its darkest
features ; and even ho is compelled to admit
a certain amount of deception on the part of
the priests. For precision and fulness, there-
fore, Mr. Hayford's Gold Coast Native Insti-
tution* cannot in general be compared with
his friend Mr. Sarbah's Fanti Customary Law.
On the political side, however, it supplements
the latter, for it treats of the native form of
government, dignities, grades of society, and
organisation, which are to a large extent

]

Nob. 206-208.]

MAN.

[Jan. 1904.

ignored in the English courts on the Coast,
and consequently in Mr. Sarbah's treatise.
From a strictly ethnological point of view,
indeed, this is the only valuable portion of
the book. It cannot be overlooked by any-
one who is studying the evolution of insti-
tutions and of land tenure, though it will be
necessary in reading it always to bear in
mind the political object which the author
has in view. E. S. H.

Celtic Literature. Maclean.

The. Literature of the Celts. By Magnus 9 A-J
Maclean. London : Blackie, 194)2. fcUf
23 x 14 cm. Price Is. 6V.

This book is a sign of the times. It is
very doubtful whether any English publisher
would have undertaken to publish such a
work as this twenty years ago, and those who
are interested in the Kelt will welcome it as
a proof that the language and literature of
the Gael and Brython now appeal to an ever-
widening circle of readers. The struggle to
preserve and defend the speech of their
ancestors has produced a feeling of kinship
among the Keltic " nations," insomuch that
it was possible to hold a Pan Keltic congress
in liKX), and a periodical — grotesque though
it be — appears every month in Dublin, under
the title of Celtia. Hitherto Scotland has
shown little or no sympathy with the move-
ment ; witness the curious fact that to find
a paper written entirely in Highland Gaelic
we have to go to Cape Breton Island. The
work before us was evidently written with a
view to arousing the interest of Gaels north
of the Tweed in the glorious Keltic heritage
of the past. The idea was an excellent one.
but unfortunately the Gaelic movement fosters
much well-meant amateurism, which naturally
makes itself ridiculous when it aspires to
scholarship. Dr. Maclean was not in any
way equipped for the difficult task he under-
took ; indeed, there are perhaps not half a
dozen scholars in the world who are sufficiently
acquainted with the whole range of Keltic
literature to be able to deal with the subject
in a proper manner. The author devotes but
one chapter to Welsh literature (which is en-
tirely second hand), and practically ignores
Brittany. We presume he is familiar with
his own Scotch Gaelic, but numerous mis-
statements show that he is blissfully innocent
of all the older stages of Irish. Although we
find one chapter with the heading 4t Celtic
Literary Revivals," no mention is made of
the interesting developments of the last
quarter of the nineteenth century, and, with

the exception of Keating and the Annalists,
we are completely left in the dark as to what
has been produced in Ireland since the Middle
Irish period. The book may possibly induce
the general reader to extend his acquaint-
ance with the literature of the Kelt, but,
welcome as the Keltic revival is, it will be
a thousand pities if those who interest them-
selves in the languages forget the difficulty of
the task before them, and by mere dilettante
efforts bring Keltic studies in this country
into disrepute once again. E. C. Q.

208

Britain. Oonybeare.

Roman Britain. By Edward Cony-
beare. London: S.P.C.K.. 11)03. 17
x 11 cm., with a map. Price 3*. §d.

This little volume—one of the "Early
Britain " Series published by the S.P.C.K.
— contains, within the compass of some
270 pages, a good deal of information upon
the subject of the Roman occupation of
Britain and of the life and culture of the
inhabitants of the island during that time.
There is, indeed there could not be, any
attempt at literary style ; but, in spite
of this, the book is more than a mere
chronicle of events. The facts are put
together in a readable and attractive manner,
and their value is enhanced by footnotes and
references to authorities, while frequent refe-
rences to archaeology and kindred subjects
by way of illustration greatly add to the
book's interest and utility.

J The first chapter, on Pre-Roman Britain,

deals with palaeolithic and neolithic man in
the island and with the early immigrants.
There is also an interesting, though neces-
sarily brief, section on the early trade routes,
especially with regard to the tin trade between
Britain and the Continent. The remaining
four chapters deal respectively with the
Julian Invasion, the Roman Conquest, the
Roman Occupation, and the End of Roman
Britain.

The principal valuo of the book is that
it forms a readable introduction to a larger
and more systematic study of the period, for
not only does it afford an outline in itself,
but the list of ancient and modern autho-
rities will be found of the greatest assistance
to anyone desirous of having a more than
passing acquaintance with this most fasci-
nating period of early English history. Thus
far Mr. Conybeare is to bo congratulated on
having produced such an admirable little
book. H. S. K.

19« ]

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